CASE IDENTIFIERS							INVASION STAGE AND TRENDS		INVASION AND IPLC IMPACT OR RESPONSE DRIVERS				DIRECT IMPACTS OF INVASIONS				INVASIVE CONTROL AND MANAGEMENT				CHANGES IN RESOURCE USE AND MANAGEMENT		CHANGES IN INPUTS AND OUTPUTS - HOUSEHOLD AND COMMUNITY LEVEL			INDIRECT IMPACTS OF MANAGEMENT AND RESPONSE FOR IPLC (GQL)							IPLC GOVERNANCE OF IAS				IPLC PERSPECTIVES ON INVASIVES																																																																																	
Case number	Entry author(s)	Dates entered/updated	Partial citation	"IPLC community, place (provide detail)"	Informants/method (provide detail)	Invasive(s) (provide detail)	Invasion stage             (drop-down menu)	Invasion trends (provide detail)	"Direct drivers (drop-down menu, multiple choice)"	Detail (per choice)	"Indirect drivers (drop-down menu, multiple choice)"	Detail (per choice)    	Impacts on nature - positive (provide detail)	Impacts on nature - negative or decrease (provide detail)	Impacts on IPLC - beneficial (provide detail)	Impacts on IPLC - harmful (provide detail)	Prevention (provide detail)	Control & management (provide detail)	Constraints/effectiveness (provide detail)	Motives for control/management (provide detail)	"Resource use and management: Types of Changes (drop down menu, multiple choice)"	Detail (per choice)     	Household and community labour organisation (provide detail)	Capitals for invasive control & management (provide detail)	Household or community production inputs and outputs (provide detail)	"Changes in GQL of individuals, households, or other groups within communities (drop-down menu multiple choice)"	Beneficial change (detail per choice)	Harmful change (detail per choice)	Changes in GQL at community and higher levels: Type of  change (drop-down menu multiple choice) 	Beneficial change (detail per choice )	Harmful change (detail per choice )	Conflict	Decision-making (provide detail)	Relations with outsiders (provide detail)	IAS information sources (provide detail)	Future prospects (provide detail)	Concepts of IAS (provide detail)	Assessment of impacts (provide detail)	Understanding of drivers (provide detail)	Cultural threats / incorporation of IAS (provide detail)	IPLC group (standard)																																																																													
	"Sebataolo Rahlao, CLA Chpt.2"	27/09/2021	"Abate et al, 2020. Pest management strategies in traditional agriculture: An African perspective"	"Africa, 1989 ? 1997, 2000"	"African traditional farmers, international agricultural research centres"	"African Armyworm (Spodoptera exampta), cassava mealybug (Phenacoccus manihoti), cassava greenmite (Mononychellas tanajoa), larger grain borer (Prostephanus trancatus), spotted tem borer (Chilo partellus), banana weevil (Cosmopolites sordidus), diamond back moth (Plutella xylostella) "	"Spread, Introduction "	Traditional farmers have used a number of methods to avoid pests over the years.	No data	no data	"Economic, Politics, governance and institutions"	Donations from international funders	no data	insects and mites attack crops and reduce potential yields in Africa 	no data	no data	"Traditional cropping systems such as crop associations, varying crop and planting times, closed seasons, mechanical control, selections of sites and clean seeds, use of plant products, pest insects used as food, supernatural pest management actions.  Farmer Field schools"	"Pesticides, biological control"	"Expensive pesticides, donated pesticides that are left over the field"	"Reduce crop damage, increase crop yield"	"no data, Changes in cropping systems, Changes in cropping systems, Changes in cropping systems, Changes in cropping systems"	no data	no data	no data	no data	no data	no data	no data	no data	no data	no data	no data	Farmer Field schools ? farmer IPM training 	no data	no data	no data	no data	no data	no data	Migratory pests that destroy most to of the crops. Increase in Pesticide usage. 																																																																														
	"Tohru Ikeda, CLA Chapt. 3"	"19/7/2021 TI
20/8/2021  Re-entered TI"	Adams et al. 2018. Conserving biodiversity and Indigenous bush tucker: Practical application of the strategic foresight framework to invasive alien species management planning	Indigenous people living in Kakadu national Park	"37 people with customary rights and interests in the study area identified by the Northern Land Council, for mapping cultural and ecological assets.
The Park's management team and the Kakadu Board of Management for evaluation of the maps, tools, and results from scenarios.
literature review, interviews with 37 people with customary rights and interests for resource for mapping cultural and ecological assets, making weed growth and management models, presentation of three scenarios including a baseline of no management, evaluation of the maps, tools, and results from scenarios by the Park's management team and the Kakadu Board of Management.
"	para grass (Urochloa mutica (Forsk.) T.Q.Nguyen) and olive hymenachne (Hymenachne amplexicaulis (Rudge) Nees).	Spread	"gInvaded wetlands are dominated by a monoculture of IAS para grassesh  (Adams et al. 2018, 4). gAerial survey of para grass cover (Setterfield et al., 2013); extensive infestations occur on the Magela and Wildman floodplains, while the South Alligator is still relatively free of this weedh (Adams et al. 2018, 7). gwe produced the first Kakadu-wide distribution map of the two weeds (Figure 3a; Setterfield et al., 2013); with 3,200 and 800 ha of the floodplains invaded by para grass and olive hymanachne, respectively.h (Adams et al. 2018, 7)"	"Land-use and Sea-use change, Natural drivers"	"Land-use and sea-use change: gOne day it's going to be over-run. There were never any weeds here until they started to bring feed in for the cattle.h (Adams et al. 2018, 8)
Natural drivers: gone noted that gpara grass is everywhere around the floodplainh when discussing areas on the Magela floodplain that are no longer used.h(Adams et al. 2018, 8)"	Not yet assigned	No data	No data	"g..identified the high risk of alien grass invasion, particularly: displacement of native plants, loss of magpie goose nesting and feeding sites, reduced access for subsistence activities, and increased fire intensity and the consequent loss of turtles aestivating in floodplain soil (McGregor et al., 2010; Setterfield et al., 2013)h (Adams et al. 2018, 7). gThis is potentially due to the fact that para grass is highly suited to areas that retain water well into the dry season; these areas are also the most productive habitats for bush tucker species such as magpie geese and turtles.h (Adams et al. 2018, 8)"	No data	" gOf those areas used in the past but no longer used (Figure 4), Indigenous land-owners attributed reduced visitation and use to weed infestation and saltwater inundation.h (Adams et al. 2018, 8 of 13). gPara grass was well recognized as a threat to future cultural use. One Indigenous landowner described how para grass had changed a highly valued part of the Wildman River system (Figure 4):gI go to Four Mile Hole ? beautiful turtle place, nearly every year and to Boggy Plains. Para grass changes it. It's like a spring, a mat. Turtle sits underneath, harder to get them out Donkeys, pigs spread it,h she said. gOne day it's going to be over-run. There were never any weeds here until they started to bring feed in for the cattle.hh"	No data	No data	"Weed management planning:
gImplementing the SF approach was time-intensive (?3 years) and required the development of specialty software and a multidisciplinary research team (ecologists, social scientists, software developers) and the commitment of time from managers and stakeholders.h (Adams et al. 2018, 11) .
Weed management planning:
gThe application of SF to weed management planning in Kakadu allowed us to explore a range of possible futures and facilitate the negotiation process among stakeholders to identify preferred management futures. We measured the effectiveness of specific actions in terms considered important to a statutory authority with responsibility for managing a very large World Heritage site and to a cultural minority with customary rights of ownership and environmental management obligations that operate at a smaller scale.h (Adams et al. 2018, 11)"	"Bush tucker harvestingF
gWe chose to concentrate on bush tucker sites as a measure of the direct use and value of floodplain to the Indigenous economy for two reasons. Firstly, hunting, fishing and gathering are vitally important cultural practices with economic and social benefits (Jackson, Finn, & Scheepers, 2014). Traditional owners consistently seek to prioritize this use in Park management (Director of National Parks, 2016).h (Adams et al. 2018)"	Changes in wild resource systems	"Changes in wild resource systems:
gImportantly, the interviews revealed changes in floodplain use over time. Most currently used sites were also used in the past (Figure 4b). However, some previously important sites are no longer used and other sites have only recently come into use (Figure 4). Of those areas used in the past but no longer used (Figure 4), Indigenous land-owners attributed reduced visitation and use to weed infestation and saltwater inundation.h (Adams et al. 2018)"	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	"gThe gains and costs of alternative scenarios were very important considerations for the participatory planning step, which included an evaluation of social impacts, particularly the geographical variation in weed distribution under each scenario and the consequences for different land-owner groups.h (Adams et al. 2018). gHowever, a critical consideration is the distribution of benefit across clan groups. For example, under Scenario 2, there is a 19% increase in magpie goose hunting area across the Park, but this represents a 100% increase for traditional custodians of the Wildman floodplain and a 40% increase for traditional custodians of Magela floodplain.h (Adams et al. 2018)"	"gFor the final two SF stages, we presented the maps, tools, and results from scenarios to the Park's management team and the Kakadu Board of Management, the statutory authority with responsibility for park management. The results were well received by the Board of Management and Park management staff. The Traditional Owner Board members appreciated that the prioritization approach explicitly considered Indigenous values as well as conservation values. The Director of National Parks described it as the perfect example of research that was focused on improving management of the Park. The Cultural Heritage and Biodiversity Manager particularly valued an approach that was based around engagement with Traditional Owners and considered this approach to be a model that could be applied to other natural resource management plans (e.g., feral animals) and in other habitats in Kakadu.h (Adams et al. 2018)"	No data.	gThe application of SF to weed management planning in Kakadu allowed us to explore a range of possible futures and facilitate the negotiation process among stakeholders to identify preferred management futures.h (Adams et al. 2018)	No data	No dara	No data	"gPara grass was well recognized as a threat to future cultural use. One Indigenous landowner described how para grass had changed a highly valued part of the Wildman River system (Figure 4):gI go to Four Mile Hole ? beautiful turtle place, nearly every year and to Boggy Plains. Para grass changes it. It's like a spring, a mat. Turtle sits underneath, harder to get them out Donkeys, pigs spread it,h she said. gOne day it's going to be over-run. There were never any weeds here until they started to bring feed in for the cattle.hh (Adams et al. 2018)"																																																																														
	"M. IKEGAMI, LA Chapter "	20210712	"Aigbedion-Atalor, et al. 2019.Eight decades of invasion by Chromolaena odorata (Asteraceae) and its biological control in West Africa: the story so far"	West Africa	Reviewed the literature by searching both academic and grey literature in Google Scholar and ISI Web of Science	Chromolaena odorata	Spread	"About eight years after its detection in Nigeria, C. odorata was reported in C?te dfIvoire in 1950 (Hoevers & MfBoob, 1996; Zebeyou, 1991), over 900 km from Nigeria. First records of its presence in other parts of West and Central Africa include: Ghana (1969) (Hall et al., 1972), Benin, Guinea, Liberia, Sierra Leone, The Gambia and Togo (1970s) (Hoevers & MfBoob, 1996; Timbilla, 1998; Timbilla, Zachariades, & Braimah, 2003; Zachariades, Janse Van Rensburg, & Witt, 2013; Zebeyou, 1991). Chromolaena odorata has also been reported present in Burkina Faso (1990s) (Hoevers & MfBoob, 1996). Historical records of surveys of C. odorata show the weed is now present in 12 of the 16 countries in West Africa (e.g. Uyi & Igbinosa, 2013; Zachariades et al., 2009, 2013) (Figure 1), with the latest record coming from Guinea-Bissau (Catarino, Indjai, Duarte, & Monteiro, 2019)"	Land-use and Sea-use change	"Land-use and Sea-use change: hAnthropogenic influences, such as the movement of humans and machinery, trade, infrastructure development ? such as road construction ? and tourism across the eopen bordersf in the sub-region, as well as medicinal and agricultural values attributed to the plant, have been suggested as the fundamental drivers that have facilitated the widespread invasion of C. odorata in West Africa (Braimah & Timbilla, 2002; Timbilla & Braimah, 1996; Uyi & Igbinosa, 2013). (P1219)"	No data	No data	"Chromolaena odorata outcompetes and prevents the natural reseeding of indigenous tree species and other vegetation (Honu & Dang, 2000; Timbilla & Braimah, 2000). The weed rapidly invades new areas, smothers nearby vegetation, and induces significant losses in the diversity of indigenous plant species such as Aspilia africana Adams and Melanthera scandens Schumach (both Asteraceae) (Braimah & Timbilla, 2002). Yeboah (1998) reported the decline of small mammal diversity in vegetation dominated by C. odorata thickets."	No data	No data	"Harmful: the biomass of grasses and broadleaved species in the forest regions of the country were reported to have declined, to about 2% and 13% respectively, due to the smothering effects of C. odorata (Timbilla & Braimah, 1996). Consequently, there was a reduction in animal nutrition and a loss of livestock and game animals due to fodder shortage (Braimah & Timbilla, 2002). Indeed, this was one of the most devastating impacts of C. odorata in West Africa, with serious consequences to livestock ranching, and urgent sustainable control strategies were warranted (Timbilla & Braimah, 2000). (P1219)
Beneficial: Chromolaena odorata has been reported by local people in West Africa to have several beneficial attributes (Timbilla & Braimah, 1996). First, and widespread, is that the plant is deemed to have pharmalogical potential (Omokhua et al., 2016). The leaf extract of C. odorata serves as first aid treatment of fresh wounds, as it is believed to facilitate blood clotting (Timbilla & Braimah, 1996). Also, in some villages, notably in the northern region of Ghana, the weed is used for embalming cadavers, and for the treatment of a range of fever conditions such as malaria (Timbilla & Braimah, 1996). Secondly, there is widespread belief that C. odorata provides some useful agricultural benefits (Prasad et al., 1996). In Nigeria, for example, a mixture of C. odorata biomass plus urea fertiliser has been recommended to increase maize and yam production respectively (Agbede, Adekiya, & Ogeh, 2013; Ogundare, Babatunde, & Aduloju, 2014). (P1220)
Beneficial: The most important albeit controversial benefit is that provided by the eslash and burnf of C. odorata in shifting agriculture system, which is largely practised by small-scale resource-poor subsistence farmers (Timbilla & Braimah, 1996).  Chromolaena odorata has a rapid growth rate and is excellent at turnover and production of biomass, resulting in increased soil fertility over a shorter period of time. (P1221)"	No data	"Several conventional methods were adopted (Figure 2) and are still being used in managing C. odorata in West Africa. Notably, the use of physical means, such as weeding with crude implements ? shovels, hoes, and cutlasses have been widely adopted in managing C. odorata.
controle: biological control agents, Apion brunneonigrum (Coleoptera: Brentidae), Pareuchaetes pseudoinsulata (Lepidoptera: Erebidae) and Cecidochares connexa (Diptera: Tephritidae), have been released in West Africa between the 1970s and the early 2000s."	"Therefore, it was deemed inappropriate from the perspective of these farmers, to release biological control agents to help control the weed. These concerns were articulated in Prasad et al. (1996), De Foresta and Schwartz (1991), Herren-Gemmill (1991) and Weise, Hauser, Koutika, and Tchamou (2002)
The conflict of interest in the status of C. odorata (weed vs medicinal/fallow shrub) and funding for original research in weed biological control is generally not prioritised by many institutions and governments in West Africa (Uyi & Igbinosa, 2013; Uyi et al., 2014). "	"Many people, including governments, were of the opinion that the adverse effects of the weed superseded the known benefits (Uyi & Igbinosa, 2013)."	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data 	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data 	No data	No data	No data	No data 	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	"Small farmers, livestock owners"																																																																													
	"Tatsiana Lipinskaya, Fellow, Chpt1"	06/07/2021 TL	"Aigo & Ladio, 2016 - Traditional Mapuche ecological knowledge in Patagonia, Argentina: fishes and other living beings inhabiting continental waters, as a reflection of processes of change"	"Three the Mapuche communities of Puel, Raquithu? and Lafquenche (The populations making up these communities are small, with no more than 50 families each)
Area of Patagonia east of the Andes, in the Neuqu?n province of Argentina. Spring-summer of 2011?2012
"	"in Puel 12 people were interviewed (4 women and 8 men, average age X = 31 } 22); in Raquithu?, 13 people (4 women and 9 men, X = 54 } 20) and in Lafquenche 7 people (4 women and 3 men, X = 68 } 13); a quali-quantitative approach combined with ethnographic fieldwork and bibliographical reviews"	"Exotic salmonids, such as the rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), brown trout (Salmo trutta), brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis)  and Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar)."	Spread	No data	Land-use and Sea-use change	exotic species introduced for sporting purposes into the Patagonian lakes and rivers	No data	No data	No data	salmonids  displace the native fish almost completely	"food for some families of indigenous comunities; positive impact on regional economy (Rainbow trout in particular, despite being a species of great sport value)."	sociocultural change that goes hand in hand with the arrival of the white man; that eating fish will bring bad luck	No data	"no environmental management practice in the literature or the discourses,BUT the high symbolic-religious value is what favours its preservation"	No data	perceptions arise from the conceptions and beliefs of the Mapuche people which tend towards sustainability and conservation of continental and aquatic ecosystems	Utilisation of invasive species	secondary activity of several families in response to dietary need 	No data	No data	fishing is currently carried out as an occasional activity and also for family or household consumption. 	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	"They distingiush introduced species from native. Need to be mentioned that independently of the symbolism and negative ecological aspects associated to exotic trout, and considering the previously mentioned aspects, introduced species are regarded by people interviewed as nice fish, whereas perca  (native species) are considered ugly fish"	They are recognised as river fish that invade and kill other fish and are associated with environmental change. The impact and interventions of man in these environments (e.g. the introduction of species) are experienced by the Mapuche as disturbing factors	No data	"dynamic traditional knowledge in these communities, which is flexible in nature and adaptable to new situations, demonstrated by the incorporation not only of new species but also new fishing tools. It also seems that new significances become absorbed in synchrony with the advance or arrival of exotic and invasive species. For the Mapuche, the presence of the white man heralded by exotic trouts speaks of how a recent event, such as the introduction of the salmonids, is already incorporated into Mapuche symbolism"																																																																														
	"Ankila Hiremath, LA, Ch. 4"	06/07/2021 AH	"Al-Assaf et al. 2020. Economic Assessment and Community Management of Prosopis juliflora Invasion in Sweimeh Village, Jordan "	"Community members of Sweimeh village in the Jordan Valley, Jordan. 2018"	"Community members of Sweimeh village; staff of local government institutions and non-government organizations (NGOs); researchers; conservation practitioners. Household surveys, focus group discussions, key informant interviews"	"Prosopis juliflora, locally known as ""Al-Salam"""	Spread	"gElderly respondents report that P. juliflora has been in the study area for at least four decades, which indicates that the invasion has been well-established for some time. Additionally, all respondents and key persons stated that its abundance has increased in the past twenty years and that it is still expanding. (Al-Assaf et al. 2020, p. 12) "	No data	No data	"Science, technology, and knowledge"	"gIn the period between 1950 and 1980, P. juliflora (locally known as Al-Salm) was introduced by Ministry of Agriculture along with other tree species into Sweimeh with the aim of afforestation [28]. The introduction of Prosopis was justified due to the fact of its ability to tolerate biotic (diseases) and abiotic (drought and high temperatures) stresses [28].h (Al-Assaf et al. 2020, p. 3)"	"Benefits soil structure, nutrient pools, soil moisture holding capacity; prevents soil erosion; enhances vegetation cover"	"Displaces native plant communities, negative impact on unique flora and fauna"	"Provides fuelwood, charcoal, fodder, ecosystem services (household sewage intake, tourism services)"	"Reduces freshwater availability, encroaches crop lands, and land used for grazing livestock, causes injuries to people and their livestock, reduces people's mobility."	No data	"Officially approved management in public areas (along streets, near schools)."	"Although there are official and NGO initiatives to sensitise people to Prosopis as an invasive species, Jordanian law still considers Prosopis to be a forestry tree, and control requires official permission from the Ministry of Agriculture."	Majority of people want the species eradicated due to its negative impacts; a smaller proportion want it removed from public spaces but would like it to remain as a source of fuelwood and charcoal. 	Utilisation of invasive species	"Use for fuelwood, charcoal, as a source of fodder, and for its indirect uses in sewage uptake (and as a benefit to tourism)"	No data	No data	"""the expected benefit from the P. juliflora invasion is estimated to be 2167.25 JOD/year considering the utilization levels throughout the year by an average household.h (Al-Assaf et al. 2020, p. 8).    ""The financial costs varied through the direct and indirect disservices identified by the local community, it turned out that the annual average cost of the P. juliflora invasion was about JOD 1410.5 per household. Thus, the invasion of P. juliflora in Sweimeh provided substantial benefits along with other serious costs (Tables 2 and 3). That said, the P. juliflora invasion has positive gross margins in its effects on the sustainability of livelihood strategies through its utilization throughout the year.h (Al-Assaf et al. 2020, p. 9)"	Material and immaterial assets	"Income from fuelwood, charcoal; reduced expenditure on supplementary fodder"	"Reduced crop production (even abandonment of agriculture); injuries to people, livestock"	Settlement / land use	"Improved soil quality, vegetation cover; source of livelihoods (trading of fuelwood, charcoal) beneficial for some members of the community"	Loss of agricultural and grazing land harmful to farmers and pastoralists	No data	"Mixed attitudes towards the invasive species, depending on benefits derived/costs incurred"	"""the Jordanian Ministry of Agriculture has classified P. juliflora as a forestry tree, thereby prohibiting the implementation of any kind of structured, massive or regular management as trimming or/and cutting.h (Al-Assaf et al. 2020, p. 6)"	Official and NGO workers sentising people to the impacts of Prosopis juliflora as an invasive species	"Complexity of the situation makes it difficult to predict future prospects (given mixed attitudes to the species, legal status of the species as a forestry tree, and predicted continued spread)."	"IPLC recognize the species and know it by its local name, ""Al-Salam"""	"gOver 98% of households stated that the invasion of P. juliflora has affected agricultural lands and related activities, with 75% of respondents pointing to a severe water shortage caused by the invasion as an example (Table 1). However, 77% of the respondents welcomed it as a source of goods, especially for firewood and fodder production, and indicated the role of P. juliflora in enhancing vegetation cover. Most of the responses about the impact of the P. juliflora invasion on ES referenced the notable impact the tree has had in enhancing the vegetation cover and the production of firewood and charcoal.h (Al-Assaf et al. 2020, p. 6)"	"Drivers of spread: ""Local villagers attributed this to the high quantity of seeds and to livestockfs ability to disperse seeds while roaming in the village and surrounding grazing areas.h (Al-Assaf et al. 2020, p. 12)."	"Most people make direct use of Prosopis (for fuelwood, charcoal, fodder), and indirect use (for sewage intake, its benefits for tourism)."	"Sweimeh villagers, Jordan"																																																																													
	"Elena Tricarico, LA Chpt. 2"	2021/7/13	Alexander et al. (2017) Working across Cultures to Protect Native American Natural and Cultural Resources from Invasive Species in California 	"Native Americans, California"	"native Americans (mostly environmental staff and Tribal elected officials) from 33 tribes and nontribal environmental managers, regulators, researchers, and others involved in invasive species management, 17 federal, state, and county government agencies, and 9 research institutions; face to face and online surveys"	"Forest pests (primarily insects, fungi, plants, and animals), including many IAS. There is a difference in pest importance between Native Americas and non tribal people. "	Spread	No data	Land-use and Sea-use change	"gPublic land management agencies have favored conifers important to commercial forestry (Oswalt et al. 2014), whereas Native Americans place high importance on hardwood trees, shrubs, and herbaceous species in the forest environment (Long et al. 2015)h. (Alexander et al. 2017)"	Socio-cultural	Native Americans are more concerned with common widely established pests than more recently introduced and quarantine species.	No data	Negative impacts on native species.	No data	Weeds can take over areas of native plants valuable for gathering or eliminate habitats of valued animalscnewer insects and pathogens that attack oaks .. also were of concern to Native Americans. This is probably a reflection of reliance on oaks for food and other cultural purposesh. (Alexander et al. 2017).	No data (but please see the comment in the word file)	The majority of nontribal respondents (94%) compared to Native Americans (57%) are aware of and practice the Integrated Pest Management (IPM). Native Americans base the management techniques on TEK (Traditional Ecological Knowledge) with an integrated sustainable approach	"Funding is considered the main constraint to manage pests from both nontribal and Native Americans. Difference in terminology can also affect the interpretation of management practices, even if they are similar. There are different priorities and barriers to overcome."	For Native Americans: maintain native species important for food and other cultural purposes.	Conserve / protect threatened species	"Native Americans want to protect native plants, that provide them food, other products and are culturally important."	No data	No data	No data	"Material and immaterial assets, Social, spiritual and cultural relations"	No data	"the IAS affect plants important for food and other products, and cultural purposes for Native Americans"	Cultural institutions	No data	the IAS impact plants with cultural importance for Native Americans.	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	Local people just mentioned that new species appeared	"For predators, they assessed the impacts on reindeer and fishery (but only wolfs and bears are mentioned). For plants (no distinction of native spreading or real IAS) they considered the effects for their diet and health."	"They recognized that climate change, land use change and technologies and overexploitation are important drivers."	No data	Native Americans in California																																																																													
	"M. IKEGAMI, LA Chapter 4, P. Howard, LA Chapter 6"	2021/10/6	"Amanor, K. 1991. Managing the fallow: Weeding technology and environmental knowledge in the Krobo district of Ghana"	"Krobo district of southeastern Ghana,  between 1982-84"	"36 farmers, mainly small and medium scale farmers, and metayer tenants"	"Chromolaena odoratum (Acheampong)
Centrosema spp.; also Imperata cylindrica & other invasive grass species"	Spread	"Chromolaena odoratum: introduced in the mid 1970s, and has spread through the forest at a rapid rate. 
Centrosema ssp:  a recent introduction although introduced to Ghana as a green fertiliser in the colonial period.  On small farms under 5 ha, grassy and straggly species (including Imperata Cylindrica) are frequently dominant, and the forest tree environment is being replaced by savanna weeds."	Land-use and Sea-use change; Natural	"Land use change: Conversion to maize production resulted in increasing removal of fallow trees, which has encouraged land degradation. Natural: Exotic savanna species with efficient wind dispersal (such as Chromolaeana) compete more effectively with forest shrubs."	"Politics, governance and institutions, Science, technology and knowledge, Demographic"	"Politics, governance and institutions: introduction of invasive exotic species. Science, technology & knowledge:  1) value of invasives in restoring soil nutrients is clearly recognized. 2) agriculture is based on low input bush fallow methods. Demographic and Land tenure: holdings are becoming increasingly fragmented, since inheritance is based on the division of property  - some parcels are too small to support families. Knowledge: Small farmers have great and detailed knowledge of agroecology, weeds and fallow plants, but they are are often the least successful in terms of yield output, live on the smallest and worst degraded holdings, and lacking access to effective technology. Shortened fallows: small farmers are forced to bring regenerating land into cultivation much quicker. Shorter cycles of clearing and burning of land place greater stress on the forest seed bank."	No data	"Chromolaena odoratum: halting the regeneration of the forest - smothers out forest fallow species, leading to the erosion of the forest fallow seed bank. Thus the successful clearing of Chromolaena odoratum may only pave the way for colonization by other exotic grassy and straggly plants."	"Chromolaena odoratum: positive: ""Maize grows well where Acheampong has been. It has some moisture in its roots and this is good.h (P9)
Centrosema ssp: positive: The plant is used as a browse and fodder crop for small livestock. ""its roots are good for the soil and its leaves drop early, rot quickly and fertilize the soil"" "	"Chromolaena odoratum: negative: ""Acheampong"" growing wild and destroying large hectares of crops growing in the region. 
Many farmers dread Acheampong, find its smell unpleasant and its numerous stems and roots a major problem in weeding and clearing land. But if you can't cut out its roots it is trouble. ""It will grow back very quickly and spoil your crops""
Centrosema ssp: negative: farmers argue that it is difficult to weed and competes aggressively with foodcrops.
""farmers don't like it because it grows thickly. If weeding is delayed it twists around crops and destroys them."""	No data	"Weeding (machete) tends to be selective, concentrating on removing species that compete with the young food crops for light and soil nutrients. Forest shrubs growing away from the rows of seedlings are left alone. Cropping systems are designed to fit the pattern of rapid bush regeneration. The fallow is full of an assortment of fruit trees. leaf litter and humus-rich soil are dug under the trees,
 in which the yams are planted."	"Physical power for weeding Chromolaena
gif you are strong and can cut out its roots it is not bad.h The main constraints small farmers face in attempting to promote intensified fallow regeneration relate to weeding technology -manual weeding cannot deal with the grassy invasives. For the Krobo farmer the problems of soil-fertility are intimately connected with problems of encroaching exotic weeds."	" ""Acheampong"" growing wild and destroying large hectares of crops growing in the region. (P9)"	Changes in cropping systems	"Small-scale farmers often attempt to halt degradation by weeding out grassy species and promoting the regeneration of shrubs, rather than adapt their farming techniques to new conditions. Faced with the constraints of lower 
ratios of fallow to cultivated land, the small farmer can 
no longer rely on the self-regulative site-recovery mechanisms
of the forest fallow. By observing and maintaining
an inventory of individual soil-restoring and soil-depleting
 species, and by attempting to encourage the growth
 of soil-restoring species and inhibit deleterious species,
 small-scale farmers are developing strategies that 
point to the possibilities of creating rapid recycling of 
fallow land, and intensified site-recovery to halt degradation"	Increased labour requirements for weeding may be too great for small farmers	No data	Increasing land degradation and exotic invasions leading to reduced yields	Material and immaterial assets	No data	Decreased crop yields; increasing outmigration and dependence on wage labour as small farmers can't be self-sufficient or earn enough income as their land degrades	"Resource tenure, Education/knowledge"	No data	"Resource tenure: Decreased land access leading to shortening of fallows, invasions, and decreased crop yields; Knowledge - farmers are unable to effectively apply their knowledge due to constraints. "	No data	farmers have difficulties in developing practical applications for translating their environmental awareness into mastery of the environment. The complexity of plant agro-ecology and labor bottlenecks constrain the development of this local knowledge. Farmers have a great deal of knowledge that could be incorporated into improved strategies.	"No extension services, and little government knowledge of these types of farming systems and how to improve them."	No data 	"Farmers require an improved weeding technology that disturbs the soil to a minimum yet is able todeal effectively with invading exotic species. This also needs to be integrated with an effective yet simple technique of fostering the rapid regeneration of the forest seed bank, to inhibit the encroachment of exotic weeds and to encourage colonization of degraded micro-locations by forest species"	"Both positive and negative, depending on the effect on soil fertility and the requirements for weeding."	"""Chromolaena odoratum: positive: gSome farmers say Achearapong is bad. But if you are strong and can cut out its roots it is not bad. Maize grows well where Acheampong has been. It has some moisture in its roots and this is good. But if you can't cut out its roots it is trouble. It will grow back very quickly and spoil your cropsh (P9)
Centrosema ssp: positive: The plant is used as a browse and fodder crop for small livestock. (P9)""	""Chromolaena odoratum: negative: """"Acheampong"""" growing wild and destroying large hectares of crops growing in the region. (P9)
Chromolaena odoratum: negative: Many farmers dread Acheampong, find its smell unpleasant and its numerous stems and roots a major problem in weeding and clearing land. 
Centrosema ssp: negative: farmers argue that it is difficult to weed and competes aggressively with foodcrops  (P9)
Centrosema ssp: negative: """"its roots are good for the soil and its leaves drop early, rot quickly and fertilize the soil. But farmers don't like it because it grows thickly. If weeding is delayed it twists around crops and destroys them."""""""	No data	farmers have difficulties in developing practical applications for translating their environmental awareness into mastery of the environment. The complexity of plant agro-ecology and labor bottlenecks constrain the development of this local knowledge.	"Small farmers, Krobo district"																																																																													
	"Patricia Howard, LA Chpt. 6"	2021/7/13	Asare-Nuamah. 2020. Smallholder farmersf adaptation strategies for the management of fall armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda) in rural Ghana 	"Ashantiland, Ashanti region, Akan people, Twi speakers, 2018. Subsistence agriculture employs about 77% of the active labor forcecabout 15% of the population practice livestock. Mixed subsistence crops including maize, cassava; Cash crops such as cocoa and oil palm"	"378 respondents randomly selected - male = 64%, female = 36%. Survey. 41 key informants - 15 district agriculture officers, 26 farm household heads with in-depth knowledge - semi-structured interviews."	"Fall Armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda), gbelieved to be indigenous to the tropical and sub-tropical regions of America,h one of the most destructive IAS in Africa."	Spread	"FAW was first detected in 2016 in West Africa, but by 2017, the invasive pest had spread to about 12 countries. Some 1.4 million ha of maize and cowpea  infested in 6 regions of Ghana, destroyed about 6,400 ha of cocoa farms. First case reported in the study district in 2017. gThe participants expressed great concerns of the rate of FAW invasion, as most of the communities in the district were invaded by the pests within a short time....almost all maize farms..."	Climate change	"gthe factors accounting for the migration of fall armywormcare mostly unknownclike many invasive species, climate and environmental change, in addition to globalization and trade exchange, have been associated with the spread of FAW in the continent""; gthe respondents generally believe that FAW in the district is largely due to climate changeh "	Economic	"High dependence on subsistence agriculture, with considerable poverty."	No data.	No data	No data 	"gMost farmers experienced FAW invasion, as reported by 83.1% of the respondentscthe majority of the respondents (66.9%) agreed that FAW invasion is a big challenge. The major crop attacked by FAW in the district is maize;  destroyed  right after germination. However, there seemed to be a mis-conception among some participants that local maize variety was more resistant to FAW than improved maize varieties, which a farmer reacted to as ethe pest attacked every variety. It is only at the point of storage that we can say local variety of maize is more resistant to weevils than improved varietiesf "	"Extensionist: gwe educated farmers to scout their farms regularly to identify signs of FAW invasion.  At the initial stage of invasion, FAW is in the larvae stage and we informed the farmers to spray early to kill the pestf. Some farmers reported that they used sticks and other objects to kill the larvae during scoutinghchthe Ministry of Food and Agriculture at the district also assisted farmers and institutes with pheromone traps to monitor FAW in the districth "	"About 44% of the farmers relied on traditional adaptation strategies, particularly on So Klin application (a washing detergent solution) to reduce the adverse impact of FAW on agricultureh. 88% applied pesticides. gpesticide application, which was mostly supplied by the Government of Ghana via the Ministry of Food and Agriculturec eas part of the planting for food and job programme, we supplied pesticides to farmers to control FAWf..Some farmers also revealed that they bought the pesticides from agrochemical retailers in the district. Extensionist: ""we also advised farmers to get the chemicals from certified agrochemical retailers in the districthch the most common ones in the district included Adepa Organic Pesticide, Bypel (Bypel 1), K-Optimal (K-Optimal EC), Super Top, KD415 (KD 415EC), Sunpyrifos (Sunpyrifos 48 EC), and Lambda (Lambda 2.5 EC)h"	"Like pesticides, the application of washing detergent solution also required caution and specific application instructions. Phermone traps did not gain popularity due to cost and technicalities attached to it. For instance, AEA6 recounted that ethe trap required certain skills before one can set or use. Even extension officers had to be trained before they could set the traps correctly. With  increasing invasion, mass trapping urgently needed  to ensure effective monitoring, but  only few pheromone traps in the district. Pesticide application gis maladaptiveh [due to non-target effects]chthe washing detergent solution may desiccate plants and reduce yields. Such a practice has long term serious negative implications on the environment. The high cost associated with agrochemicals such as pesticides serves as a barrier to female farmers who have limited resourcesh "	Avoid greater invasion; reduce crop damage	No data	by weeding out grassy species and promoting the	gmale farmerscwere more positive in applying pesticides than femalesc rural farmers were more likely to apply washing detergent solutioncthan urban farmersc farmers with no education were less likely to use pesticides. Skills for using phermone traps prohibitive.	"Phermone trap costs prohibitive; Farmersf choice of traditional strategies may be due to the low cost of the washing detergent, inaccesibility to reliable information for pest control, and lack of best practices in crop protection. Male farmers own more resources than females and are  in a better position to apply expensive strategies such as pesticides. The high cost associated with agrochemicals such as pesticides serves as a barrier to female farmers who have limited resourcesh "	Decrease in maize yields (one report of 66% loss in maize harvest in first year).	Material and immaterial assets	No data	"High cost of agrochemicals, especially prohibitive for women. Non-target effects of agrochemicals. Reduction in crop yields. Smallholder farmers reported reduction in the yields of maize, which is a staple crop..Agriculture gserves as the main source of livelihood and food security for the majority of farmers and householdsh "	No data	None reported	No data	No data	No data	No data	"Local experimentation and learning regarding Typhus control and management, as well as impacts on Schoenoplectus. Knowledge differs depending on which species people prefer and use."	No data	No data	No data	"Locals said due to a decline in lake water level, sewage discharges, grazing decline. Harvesters said native fish suffered from declines in submersed aquatic vegetation, mediated by herbivory from introduced Cyprinus or by Typhafs dominance."	"Most readily adopted Typhus, which was promoted by outsiders, together with markets for Typhus products. Typhus was readily available. People were already making products from another native species, and learned how to manage and use Typhus."																																																																														
	"Tatsiana Lipinskaya, Fellow, Chpt1"	12/07/2021 TL	"Athayde et al., 2016 - Engaging indigenous and academic knowledge on bees in the Amazon: implications for environmental management and transdisciplinary research "	"sociolinguistic groups in the Xingu Park, Amazon, Brazil. Kawaiwete or Kaiabi indigenous people"	"Kawaiwete or Kaiabi indigenous people. Qualitative methodological approach was developed for the Bees Ecology project, including participant observation, field walks, mapping activities, focus groups and participatory workshops in four villages. School and field activities involved elders, shamans, beekeepers, indigenous teachers, women, and school children"	"Africanized honey bee is a hybrid of one of the several European honey bee subspecies (Apis mellifera; A. m. carnica; A. m. caucasia; or A. m. linguica) and the African honey bee (A. m. scutellata)

Kawaiwete named the honey bee as ghoney wasph
"	Spread	"Africanized honey bees have spread out to the west and north in South America, Central America and eastern Mexico, at a rate of near 200 miles per year. In 1990 these bees reached southern Texas, finding their way to California in 1995. They then spread north, and were found in Nevada by 1998. By 2004, the bees had migrated through Texas and were detected in Oklahoma. Most recently, the Africanized honey bee has become established in western Louisiana, southwestern Arkansas, and southern Florida "	Land-use and Sea-use change	anthropic interference through migratory apiculture 	No data	No data	No data	"Africanized honey bee, in competition with native bee species, has compromised and/or limited: a) the pollination of native plant species (which many times have pollinator specificity); b) resource availability (pollen, nectar, resin) for native bees; and c) the capacity of native pollinators to get resources by deterrence or expulsion through competition with the exotic bee . May affect the diversity of native bees."	food products	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	Utilisation of invasive species	"regeneration of shrubs, rather than adapt their farming"	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	"Representatives of the four groups involved in this research said that in the first contacts with this new bee, they did not let the children eat its honey, because they thought it could make the kids sick or induce vomit. K?s?dj? first thought that it was a species that they already knew, but later on they named it differently"	No data	No data	No data																																																																														
	"Ellen Ryan-Colton, fellow CH4"	11/07/2021 ERC	Atyosi et al 2019. Alien Plants in the Eastern Cape Province in South Africa: Perceptions of Their Contributions to Livelihoods of Local Communities. 	"Rural community in Khayamnandi village, Alice, Eastern Cape province, South Africa. Includes traditional healers, herbalists, farmers and lay people. "	"120 people in Khayamnandi village: 13 traditional healers, 27 herbalist, ten farmers and 70 lay people. Includes 70 males and 50 females. Half between 36 and 55 years old, one third 18 to 35 years old. Semi-structured/open-ended questionaires and field trips"	"26 alien plant species ranging from grasses, herbs, trees and shrubs. All but one have Local Xhosa names listed in word template. Agave americana, Amaranthus spinosus, Arundo donax, Avena fatua, Bambusa glaucescens, Bidens pilosa, Bromus catharticus, Cannabis sativa, Cereus jamaracu, Eichhornia crassipes, Harrisa balansae, Morus alba, Nothoscordum borbonicum, Opuntia engelmannii, Opuntia ficus-indica, Opuntis monocantha, Phytolacca dioica, Pinus halepensis, Potederia cordata, Prunus persica, Psidium guajava, Salix babylonica, Syzygium paniculatum, Tagetes minuta, Toxicodendron succedaneem, Xanthium spinosum"	No data	no data	No data	No data	No data	No data 	No data	outcompetes native species	"71.1% of informants said there were benefical impacts: pharmaceutical (herbal medicines), economic (traded) and recognised as resources. Resources included fruit trees, ornamental plants, fodder, herbal medicines, construction materials, erosion control, vegetables, fibre, recreational use for smoking, firewood"	no data	No data	"government programmes (Working for Water) removes the alien plants in the village, and gives local people alternative native plants for cultivation. No mention of IPLC doing management, just government programmes. "	13.3% of informants said they lacked knowledge about control and management policies and about the negative and positive aspects of the alien species	"alien plants are listed under legislation, and so government acted to control them. Combined their control with large program to educate rural poor about alien species and create job opporunities. "	Utilisation of invasive species	techniques to new conditions. A movement to a hoebased	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	"13% of informants said they lacked knowledge about policies which govern control and management, or negative and positive aspects, and this paper goes some way to increasing awareness/education with the hope of improving decion-making for IPLC and for overall stakeholders"	"Over 80% of informants appreciated the ediucation and awareness raising about alien plants that was being carried out by other organisations, for example, Working for Water. And the  informants appreciated the relevant policies (legislation). Working for Water programs are doing the control efforts and providing alternative native species for use. "	"13% of respondents lack the knowledge about policies which govern control and management, or negative and positive aspects of the alien plants"	No data	"the awareness and knowledge about the alien plants differed amoungt the types of informants - herbalists vs healers vs farmers vs lay people.  When the allien plants were growing where they were not wanted, the plants were percieved as ""weeds"". "	"One third of informants said the alien plants were undesirable, mainly because they outcompoeted native plants.  Others viewed the alien plants as having effcient growth and repoduction and were widepread. They reported many uses and listed these uses as beneficial. "	No data	"Some level of acceptance of the alien plants bvy local people - all but one had local names, and there were many benefits spoken about due to these plants being used as a resource. "	"Rural villagers, Khayamnandi village, Alice"																																																																													
	"Chika Egawa, LA, Chpt. 5"	18/6/2021 CE	Bach and Larson 2017. Speaking about weeds: Indigenous eldersf metaphors for invasive species and their management 	"Aboriginal people. The Kimberley region, Western Australia. 2011-2015."	32 Aboriginal rangers and 38 elders were interviewd. Participant observation was done with five ranger groups.	"Environmental weeds [most likely aliens, see word template for details] including Rubber Vine (Cryptostegia grandiflora), Passionfruit Vine (Passiflora foetida), Coffee Bush (Leucaena leucocephala), a vine Siratro (Macroptilium atropurpureum)"	Spread	"Passionfruit Vine (Passiflora foetida) Spread: ga Bunuba ranger explained that eWe canft beat it, itfs everywheref.h (Bach and Larson 2017, 570)
Coffee Bush (Leucaena leucocephala) Spread: gLikewise, another Bardi-Jawi ranger summed up the groupfs control of Coffee Bush (Leucaena leucocephala) by proclaiming that eWefll never win this one! Itfs unbeatablef.h (Bach and Larson 2017, 570)
Siratro (Macroptilium atropurpureum) Spread: gan elder explained that ethat vine is cheeky c [one] canft look away from it, otherwise it might get too close to the water and choke it, make it sickf.h (Bach and Larson 2017, 571)"	"Resource extraction, Land-use and Sea-use change"	"Resource etraction: not specified but ""resource extraction/processing"" is mentioned.
Land-use change: pastoralism, tourism, four-wheel drives entering sensitive areas, fires near roads"	No data	No data	No data	No data	"For erosion control and food, weeds are beneficial (""weeds eprotectf and ecoverf country from erosion and barrenness"", for passionfruit ""its fruit is a popular source of food for people and animals"")"	"For water, access, culture weeds are harmful (Macroptilium atropurpureum inhibits access to water, weeds with prickles stick to people who brush against them, weeds inhibit access to cultural sites or to conduct traditional burning practices and to transfer language and culture to kids)"	No data	Rangers usually apply species-based management which kills target plants. There are no mention on how to kill the plants.	Rangers often feel that they are unsuccessful in management which can cause frustration leading to a lack of motivation.	To restore healthy lands. gElders suggest that the point of ranger work is to elook after countryf and to ecare for countryf. 	"Replace reduced/missing resources , Utilisation of invasive species"	"filling technology is resisted, since this will further"	Each ranger group spends 15-40% of time for weed control.	No data	No data	"Social, spiritual and cultural relations"	Management led to opportunities to teach young people about culture and to experiment with traditional burning regimes as a form of weed control	No data	Social stratification	Rangers found the link between management of weeds and the improvement of elders' health.	No data	No data	Elders recognize the need of management when the land become sick because of weeds.	"The Federal Governmment provides financial support through the ""Working on Country"" and ""Indigenous Protected Area"" programs."	A mixture of formal land management training and the traditional knowledge that the elders have shared with rangers.	No data	"Elders describe environmental weeds as ""cheeky"", which implys two things: first plants that spread quickly and second plants that are a nuisance. The effect of a weed was judged in terms of whether it positively, negatively or neutrally affected the health of country."	No data	"No clear understanding: gThat a weed had been introduced commonly provoked curiosity and discussion among elders, which prompted a number of questions about the weedfs relationship to humans: eFrom where was it introduced?f, eWho introduced it?f, eWhen did they introduce it?f, eWhy did they introduce it?f, eDo people still like it or use it?f, and eHow did it become a weed?f (Bach and Larson 2017, 571)"	"Elders say weeds eventually belong to the land as time goes. "" Although most weeds were recognized as introduced or kartiya plants, some were still considered to ebelong onf or ebelong tof particular sites or types of country. Elders suggested that this is because ebelongingf can develop over time."""	"Aboriginal people, Kimberly region"																																																																													
	"Ellen Ryan-Colton, fellow CH4"	11/07/2021 ERC	"Bach et al 2019. From killing lists to healthy country: Aboriginal approaches to weed control in the Kimberley, Western Australia "	"5 indigenous groups from Kimberley region, north Western Australia. Bardi-Jawi, Bunuba, Nyikina Mangala, Ngurrara and Wanjina-Wunggurr-Wilinggin groups"	"38 IPLC elders, and 44 IPLC rangers "	"21 alien plants, ranging from grasses, herbs, vines, shrubs, trees. Includes Jatropha gossypifolia, Cenchrus ciliaris, Typhus orientalis, Calotropis procera, Tribulus terrestris, Ziziohus mauritiana, Leucaena leucocephala, Cenchrus biflorus, Andropogon gayanus, Merremia aegyptia, Aerva javanica, Cenchrus polystachios, Azidirachta indica, Parkinsonia acuelata, Passiflora foetida, Acacia farnesiana, Hibiscus sabdarifa, Cryptostegia grandiflora, Macroptilium atropurpureum,  Sorgum spp., Colocasia spp."	Spread	"Weeds entered along with pastorlism (land use change from aboriginal managed ecosystems) in the early 1900s. Further growth seen in 1950s and 1960s. In recent decades, signifcant expansion of weeds. gIt seems like there are more weeds here than when we started (our management)h (Bach et al 2019 pg 187)"	Land-use and Sea-use change	"Land use change: pastoral industry introduced some species, and then livestock spread species these further. Increase in humans driving vehicles through the area (tourism - indirect driver) has increased landscape disturbance and spread of weeds"	"Economic, Politics, governance and institutions"	"Economic: marketing of the Kimberley region as a great region for tourism has led to more travellers in vehicles spreading seeds of weeds around. Government policies: the natural resource management polciies of governments, which influenced how IPLC ranger programs were established, has influenced how they respond to (manage) weeds (e.g. legislation dictates which weeds to work on). Also policies are changing, to become more culturally relevant (e.g. wholistic healthy country planning), and so this is also changing the way ranger teams approach weed management - more culturally connected.  Both government land use decision and economic activities were mentioned as categories of indirect drivers of invasion by IPLC."	Nesting place for Native birds (e.g. gouldian finch) 	"smother bush foods, or reduce bush foods through large wildfires due to the weed with higher fuel load"	"Provide edible foods for people and animals, provide fodder for animals, stop further degredation of areas  by protecting the soil and providing structure"	"Weeds limit people's access to country, such as blocking access to important cultural cermionial sites, hunting sites, recreation sites, so people dont visit country as often and practice these cultural rituals or maintain a connection to country. This has a flow on effect to impacting the cultural transmission of knowledge to younger generations . Disrupts cultural burning regimes, by changing the fuel load, and negatively affecting peoples ability to collect bush foods. "	"Rangers put up signs to educate people about removing the seeds from their clothing, to prevent further dispersal "	"IPLC Rangers carry out the work in teams. Chemical and manual control with follow up. 
Most of the work is on gweed listsh just working species by species. But some other more successful projects were culturally based and site based. 
"	"Most IPLC ranger teams believed their work was ineffective, and get friustrated with this. 10 out of 35 projects were considered successful. The area to manage is extremely large, with limited personnel and resources. Moreso, the ""list based"" approach of working on weeds, which is the mainstream rather than IPLC way to approach weed work, is said as ""setting them up to fail"". More effective weed management has been - based on ILPC elders vision for country, combined with cultural activities often at cultural sites, when they could see peoples behaviour change for the better after their work, and when they could follow up control of regrowth (not at a too distant site)"	"Motives for management were mainly didacted by mainstream policies of ""weed lists"", which needed to be control due to legislation. Motivations such as ""its on our work plan"".  But then some projects had secondary motivations including improving access to cultural sites, rueducing compoettion with native plants/animals/bush foods, preventing ""wrong way fire"", focussing on cultural sites and including the younger generation to learn. "	Conserve / protect threatened species	disrupt the remnants of the forest seed bank contained in	Ranger teams are working on controlling the weeds as part of their work plan and funding. 	The largest percentage of funding allocation for ranger teams is on weeds.	No data	"Health (mental and physical), Social, spiritual and cultural relations"	"Health: where management actions are culturally connected ? then rangers have a sense of enjoyment, and people are revisting cultural sites again to practice their culture. "	"Health: Where Management actions are not effective, usually the ""weed list"" approach,, this is contributing to poorer mental health feelings ? frustration, pointlessness, lack of motivation for work. Soci/Spirit/cultural relations: weeds are blocking access to country, which limits peoples ability to pratice cultural rituals, to visit country together, to pass on knowledge through the generations. "	Education/knowledge	No data	Education of younger generation is impacted by not being able to access country due to weeds	No data	"Weed work by IPLC rangers is driven by maintsream legislation ""weed lists"". So IPLC are not involved in deciding on these weeds. However, where newer government policies and approaches have incporated cultural values and better consultation with IPLC, IPLC have been involved in the descion-making process for some weeds, often looking at a more site-based approach. IPLC rangers and consulting with IPLC elders too about their work. "	"Thoughts that some external people like tourists, governments, were responsible for the spread of the weeds. 
The IPLC rangers work for the mainstream land councils/NRM bodies in the area. 
"	"rangers receive mainstream training in weed management, which influences how they conduct their work and knowledge about weeds. When more cosultation happens with elders, weeds are lookd at as part of a place-based appraoch to managing country. Then younger IPLC and rangers gain knowledge when out on country with elders. "	"Elders and rangers want to do future weed work that ehnances their connections to country and culture.  For example, healthy country planning rather than killing weeds on weed lists. They would like to ""create something"" or have positive outcomes form weed work, not just be at ""war"" with weeds or taking things from the land. "	"Two concepts are talked about ? the concept of IAS, and also the concept of doing weed work and how this sits with people. During their work, IPLC rangers are not given scope to think about weeds other than how they are taught, which is a mainstream approach focussed on killing weeds on weed lists. So some rangers concepts are aligned with the mainstream. However, when given time to think about it, elders and rangers view that IAS need to be thought about first. They said that not all change is bad, and people need to consider the change before saying its harmful. some plants can come to ""belong"" to country over time, or these plants are a sign of neglect of places and need to be removed for restoration of an area. Not inherrently evil. "	"Main assessment of impacts is  that the weeds can provide foods, restore degraded country, nesting place for native birds. But negatively, they stop peoples access to country, change fire regimes, and these all have implications for stopping the tramission of culture between generatios, and stopping peoples enjoyment of areas for recreation, hunting and other cultural practices like ceremonies. Some say weeds have caused ""signifcant upheavel to their Aboriginal ancestral landscapesh "	"People are the main cause of IAS spread ? directly such as physical processes of land change and disturbance and dispersal (such as by more vehicles, tourism) or indirectly through government land use decisions/economic activity. "	"The IPLC donft see weed managemeny as having a cultural connection, unlike other activities such as fire management and taking people out on country. So the management of the weeds has not been incorporated into their culture. 
Some weeds block access to country and so limit opportunities for people to be on country, so the weeds are a  cultural threat.
"	"Aboriginals, Kimberley region"																																																																													
	"Romina Fernandez, Fellow Chpt.4"	08/06/2021 RF	"Bajwa et al. 2019-Impact of invasive plant species on the livelihoods of farming households: evidence from Parthenium hysterophorus invasion in rural Punjab, Pakistan"	Farming communities of three different cropping regions in Punjab province of Pakistan.	Farmers from Punjab province of Pakistan/Survey questionnaire 	"Parthenium hysterophorus, gParthenium weedh, eeGajar bootiff (Carrot weed)h"	Spread	"gPakistan is among those countries where parthenium weed has passed its initial establishment phase, after potentially multiple introductions, and is now spreading at an alarming paceh "	Land-use and Sea-use change	"gIt was introduced in Pakistan from India possibly through the movement of vehicles carrying parthenium weed seed and the trading of contaminated seed lots. However, the information on the exact mode of its introduction and dispersal into Pakistan is not knownh "	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	parthenium weed infestes several crops and livestock production. In adittion it was reported that Parthenium weed affects animal and human health negatively	No data	"Manual control, herbicides and integrated management "	No data	"Farmers: gTo avoid crop infestation, to maintain biodiversity, to avoid health problems, to reduce further spreadh "	Changes in livestock systems	"the fallow, and increase soil desiccation. But in continuing"	gThe farmers across the three regions spent significant amounts of time on manual and chemical weed control of parthenium weedh and they considered this species is dificult to manage	"gParthenium weed was costing significant amounts for its management in crops, due to losses on fodder collection sites, and due losses and treatment of animal health and human health issues. The average annual cost to manage the weed in crops was estimated to be ca. $205 (USD) per householdhchThe region also had no effect on the annual cost associated with fodder collection which was $935 per householdhch gThe average cost to human health was ca. $73 per householdh "	 parthenium weed negatively affect the fodder collection ability  of farmers and also eating habits of animals	"Material and immaterial assets,  Health (mental and physical)"	No data	Material and immaterial assets: the control of parthenium weed requets significant labor time. Material and immaterial assets:  this species decreases crop and livestock production. ?Health (mental and physical): parthenium weed  is asociated with different human health issues	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	"Farmers express willingness to participate in futures program to management the species. Also farmers indicate that the species has a poor utilization potential"""	"""gAll 580 farmers surveyed knew about parthenium weed and considered the plant to be a weed."""	No data	gThe majority of farmers reporting an increase in the weed-infested area.Few farmers across three regions reported a decline in the area and density of parthenium weed during last the 5 yearsh 	gThe increasing invasion of parthenium weed poses serious threat to the livelihood of people and sustainable agriculture in a pre-dominantly agriculture-based economyh 	Small farmers from Punjab of Pakistan																																																																													
	"Elena Tricarico, LA Chpt. 2"	2021/7/15	"Barbour & Schlesinger (2012) Whofs the boss? Post-colonialism, ecological research and conservation management on Australian Indigenous lands."	"Aboriginal Australians, Australia"	Aboriginal Australians; review	Buffel grass (Pennisetum ciliare L. Link syn. Cenchrus ciliaris L.) 	No data	No data	Land-use and Sea-use change	Buffel grass has been introduced to improve pasture species to stabilize soil. 	Socio-cultural	The species is considered important for the pastoral industry.	No data	Buffel grass is considered a weed by conservation managers with negative effects on biodiversity in semi-arid environments. 	Buffel grass is considered ga valuable improved pasture species and soil stabiliser by many pastoralistsh. (Barbour & Schlesinger 2012)	No data	No data	Chemical control is carried out to manage the species. 	"gSome Indigenous people struggle with the notion of managing and destroying weeds because it does not fit their world view or objectivesh. (Barbour & Schlesinger 2012) So managing the species cannot be a priority for them. Despite its evident impact on biodiversity, the species gis not a declared weed in the NT (Northern Territory), primarily because of its continued value to the pastoral industryh. (Barbour & Schlesinger 2012)
Different views on the species by Indigenous people."	For conservation managers and part of Indigenous people to protect native biodiversity	Utilisation of invasive species	to use a minimum-tillage machete-based culture	No data	No data	No data	Material and immaterial assets	Buffel grass is important for the pastoralists as source and soil stabilizer.	No data	No data	No data	No data	[Possible conflicts for different views between indigenous and non indigenous people.]	"Some Indigenous people consider the species a weed to be managed, while others consider it a resource (thus its management could not be a priority). "	Non indigenous ecologists train indigenous people to manage Buffel grass without considering their view on the species and its management. 	Some Indigenous people rely on conservation managers for information on the species. 	"Indigenous people should be included in all the stages of research and management process. The value of their knowledge gis becoming more widely recognised, especially in land management, and there is hope that combining academic ecological knowledge with Indigenous knowledge will achieve enhanced outcomes for the environmenth. (Barbour & Schlesinger 2012) "	"gSome Indigenous people, generally those who have been exposed to Western concepts of NRM, share the Western conservationist view that weeds are undesirable, foreign, invasive species, while others, who may not have been exposed to these ideas, do not know what a weed is. Other Indigenous people may see introduced species as weeds (whether or not they are considered to be weeds by others) from their own cultural perspective, because of damage caused to country or sites of significance by these plantsh. (Barbour & Schlesinger 2012)"	No data	No data	No data	Aboriginals																																																																													
	"Esra Per, Fellow Chapter 3"	2021/11/7	"Bardsley and Wiseman 2012, Climate change vulnerability and social development for remote indigenous communities of South Australia"	"Indigenous communities of in South Australia (SA), Anangu Pitjantjatjara Yankunytjatjara lands, in the Alinytjara Wilurara (AW) Natural Resources Management (NRM) region in 2011 "	"During the week of March 21?28, 2011, the review was conducted in collaboration with the AW NRM Board and included a series of focus group workshops with local Anangu stakeholders, primarily elders and other interested men and women in the western APY Lands. The workshops were informally guided by a series of questions about climatic drivers of change for the communities, their surroundings, and significant management activities. "	"Invasive plant species, buffel grass (Cenchrus ciliaris) and feral camels (Camelus dromedarius) "	Spread	Buffel grass is a drought-tolerant stock feed that originated in northern Africa and has been widely planted across Australia's semi-arid summer rainfall zones to aid in the restoration of degraded lands. The buffel grass becomes establishes in high densities 	No data	"Land-use and sea-use change: There is growing evidence that buffel grass (Cenchrus ciliaris), an invasive plant species, has already reduced biodiversity in regions where it is well established and is impacting fire management techniques. "	No data	No data	No data	"Buffel grass was planted to provide drought-tolerant stock fodder and to aid in land rehabilitation.  It has the potential to drastically impact local fire regimes by increasing local fuel usage, limiting competition from other vegetation, and resulting in more, hotter fires that generate conditions. Feral camels (Camelus dromedarius) have a major impact on vegetation and communities, regardless of future climate change"	No data	"eCamels have been a big issue here during the dry, they knocked down a tank, fences, taps and other infrastructure.  Nothing much can stop the camels, no fence, and they clean up the quandong. We used to have to chase them out of town every night two or three years ago.  In Amata, some people got hurt. The camels bugger up the water, we canft drink it. They muck around the rockholes. Camels drink all the water up, even up the hill in the rockholes. They only come when it is Christmas time, when it is hot and dryff (Kalka-Pipalyatjara)"	Some prevention acitivities for Camels	Fire control for  the buffel grass	"To yet, there has been little research into the specific threats to NRM that may occur as a result of climate change in the AW region, making a full analysis of the potential vulnerabilities difficult "	No data	"protecting native species, Changes in wild resource system, protecting native species, Changes in wild resource system"	farmers find it difficult to control the fine and dense	No data	No data	"In the APY Lands, there is a strong sense of societal vulnerability, both directly to environmental risks and indirectly to shifting livelihoods. For example, after severe summer rains in the APY in the summer of 2010?2011 caused flooding, which had a substantial impact on community activities, there were major access issues in certain settlements"	"other categories, eeFire management is changing"	Livelihood	directly to environmental risks and indirectly to shifting livelihoods	Social vulnerability is increasing	No data	"new challenges such as climate change and energy price issues, as critical traditional and more recent human and social resources are depleted over time"	No data	No data	Even land knowledge could be being lost very quickly	No data	"Immediate hazard management and livelihood needs, according to some, should be prioritized in a risk management strategy, especially for the most marginalized communities and the most vulnerable individuals within them"	Traditional ecological knowledge and land management is being challenged because people do not have the capacity to get out to country or the next generation to take on the roles of managing sung country	Our country is blowing away from us. 	Climate change impacts may have a significant impact on species important 	No data	"Anangu Pitjantjatjara, Alinytjara Wilurara NRM region"																																																																													
LB.1	"Patricia Howard, LA Chpt. 6"	2021/7/5	Becker et al. 2016. Land-use changes and the invasion dynamics of shrubs in Baringo 	"Lake Baringo, Kenya, Il Chamus pastoralists. Arid plains around Lake Baringo, shrublands between East Pokot and Laikipia, Pokot herders; Churo highlands"	"53 Il Chamus herders; 97 household heads in Churo highlands. Field surveys, and rapid assessments of vegetation and soil attributes conducted during three short-term, inter-disciplinary ?eldwork seasons in 2005, 2009, and 2012, as well as two extended ?eld surveys in 2013 and 2014 . satellite data (LandSat and RapidEye scenes) from 1990, 2000, and 2010 document the spread dynamics"	Prosopis juli?ora (Sw.) DC. and probably hybrids with P. pallida (Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd.) Kunth (IAS). Dodonaea viscosa Jacq. is native to arid and semi-arid East Africa. Dodonaea is not the only case of a native woody species invading grasslands.	Spread	"Prosopis introduced in Kenya in 1973 through a governmental initiative to restore quarries near Mombasa. 10 years later, it was planted in Baringo in the context of the eFuelwood Afforestation Extension Projectf to increase the availability of ?rewood and to restore soils affected by over-grazing and erosion. Despite occurring in different ecological zones, both species started to became invasive in the late 1990s (start of invasion), showed rapid spread dynamics around 2008 (?rst wave of invasion), and expanded spatially into neighbouring regions and districts in 2013?2014 (second wave of invasion). Farmers saw ?rst evidence of  Dodonaea spread in the late 1980s and of proper encroachment in the Churo highlands in the early 2000s. With the (post-drought)  shift in herd structures and the massive increase in the number of goats, this stationary behaviour of Prosopis suddenly changed "	"Climate change, Land-use and Sea-use change, IAS"	"Climate change: Increased variability in rainfall during the past decades appears to have been the trigger for both the land-use and the herd management changes that were the drivers of this shrub invasion. Severe drought  1997-2000 - an estimated 250,000 cattle died of starvation in Baringo alone. Exceptionally wet years 2012 and 2013 provoked  dramatic rise in water table, forcing people living along shores to  move to drier ground, favouring Prosopis and resulting in massive lateral spread. Invasives: Dodonaea is not palatable for browsing animals and  inhibits growth of grasses, thus affecting the availability and quality of forage. Both species are alleopathic, displace native grass and planted vegetation. Spread by goats.  Land-use change: post-drought  sedentarisation - tillage, burning, increased livestock stocking densities, increase in goat production, negatively affect resource-base quality and availability of pastureland, forcing people out of traditional livelihood strategies. Cattle herds only partially restored; number of  more resistant goats increased from 240,000  to nearly 2 million in 2010. Goats browse the Prosopis pods and distribute them - shift from grazers to browsers was instrumental in creating a dispersal mechanism for Prosopis seeds. Dodonea spread led to a further reduction of forage for ruminants, intensifying switch to agriculture, spatially expanding seasonal livestock migrations, and accelerating further spread.  Fire and soil tillage generated disturbances in  wooded grasslands that most likely paved the way for Dodonaea establishment. "	"Demographic , Economic, Socio-cultural, Politics, governance and institutions"	"Demographic: High population and livestock densities around Lake Baringo; displacement of wildlife in East Pokot due to population increase, wo wild animals fail to control woody plant species. Restrictions on cross-scale adaptive measures such as seasonal migration. Economic - growing national demand for goat meat in  Kenyan cities and  capacity to export abroad. Socio-cultural: droughts tended to accelerate the emerging process of sedentarization of former nomadic pastoralists. Political: large land areas in  Churo highlands transformed to conservancies by local elites working with environmentalist NGOs to achieve tourist revenues in future, causing shortage of pastureland and overstocking, large patches of bare soil. Migration patterns of the herds of the pastoralists are strongly restricted due to contested land on the borders and ethnic violence with neighbouring tribes. Social-ecological:  ""People have traditionally adapted their land-use and livelihood strategies to gradual changes in the environment (i.e. rainfall variability). In turn, the environment has responded to changes in land-use and management, resulting in adaptive cycles of human?environment interactions. cInvasiveness by both Prosopis and Dodonaea strongly reduces the resource availability and increasingly unhinges the ecological from the social sub-system"" (p. 121). Non-farm income, migration of livestock to neighbouring regions and out-migration affect the system beyond the spatial scale of currently affected areas, and may even contribute to an accelerated spread dynamics (i.e. via migrating animals).."	None	"Highly competitive, Prosopis impedes  regeneration of native woody species and suppress the growth of grasses. Dodonea - for fencing around crop ?elds and homesteads to prevent animal trespass. With sedentarization, fencing has been spreading rapidly in East Pokot; raw material brings good price. Medicinal uses; Twigs are also reportedly used as walking and digging sticks, for roof support, and as tool handles, traps or weapons. Most of these uses are highly localized, are of minor economic importance, and have no relevance in controlling the Dodonaea invasion or in providing a means to enhance the peoplesf adaptive capacity to catastrophic ecological change processes."	"Most of the socio-economic activities, including bee-keeping, the local sale of Prosopis honey, and the sale and use of the thorny branches as fencing material, are unviable. "	"Invasive spread dynamics accelerates human?environment interactions, to increasingly upset the balance of the social and the ecological sub-systems  and  push an already fragile social?ecological system to the edge of collapse. Prosopis prevents  regeneration of former Acacia tortilis stands and displaces grass vegetation, severely impacting forage availability. Can't be controlled on agricultural land. Dodonea has similiar negative impacts. Moving into agriculture doesn't compensate livestock losses."	No data	Only in commercial crop land with mechanical tractor tillage can Prosopis be kept at bay 	Only in commercial crop land with mechanical tractor tillage can Prosopis be kept at bay 	"Maintain agricultural production, if can be controlled"	"Utilisation of invasive species, Changes in livestock systems, Changes in cropping systems"	rooting structures of grass species.	No data	Only those with tractors can clear Prosopis from agricultural land.	"Increasingly forced to adopt changes in their agriculture-based livelihood strategies - engage in wage employment or move into small-scale enterprises such as honey and charcoal production. Some former pastoralists have started small-scale cereal and vegetable farming along the shores of Lake Baringo. However, these areas are also becoming over-grown with Prosopis.None of these activities appears to compensate economically for the loss of livestock-based livelihoods that thrived in former times"	"Material and immaterial assets, Safety and security"	None.	"Move into to agriculture, wage labour, small-scale enterprises based on local resources, but these donft compensate for loss of livestock; land shortages, moving livestock to other areas where conflicts are frequent; resource exploitation appears to be unsustainable."	"Governance institutions , Resource tenure, Settlement / land use"	None reported	"Resource tenure: With the disappearance of productive pastures and farmlands, the general land shortage is leading to greatly heightened social tensions. Governance: The settling of land disputes among Pokot has become a daily task of village elders and community leaders. Settlement/land use: Faced with loss of productive land for grazing their herd or indulging in crop farming, the losers in such land disputes must move their livestock further away to egreener groundsf in the Rift Valley or onto the Laikipia plateau, where inter-ethnic con?icts are not only frequent but also increasingly violent."	"With the disappearance of productive pastures and farmlands, the general land shortage is leading to greatly heightened social tensions. The settling of land disputes among Pokot has become a daily task of village elders and community leaders. Settlement/land use: Faced with loss of productive land for grazing their herd or indulging in crop farming, the losers in such land disputes must move their livestock further away to egreener groundsf in the Rift Valley or onto the Laikipia plateau, where inter-ethnic con?icts are not only frequent but also increasingly violent."	No data	"gNo signi?cant policy or program responses from local governments; weeds are low priority, based upon con?icting perceptions of the impact and potential threat of Chromolaena. Department of Animal Husbandry recognizes the problem and there is political pressure but no practical action strategies ? the agency focus is on intensi?cation rather than rangeland management and pasture improvementh "	No data	"gcLocal farmers have yet fully to adjust their farming strategies and techniques to Chromolaena, which may have offsetting advantages that cancel out or diminish its deleterious effects as in other regions of Indonesia, where farming intensities and the comparative advantages of long- and short-term fallow agriculture produce variable perceptions of the usefulness of the weed by peasant farming communitiesh"	"""Chromolaena is a highly invasive perennial scrambling shrub that thrives in open grassland and disturbed soil. It grows rapidly and produces a dense mass of leaf matter that gradually shades out all other competition. This particular propensity of the plant gave rise to its common though facetious Indonesian name, erumput golkarf (Golkar grass), after the then ruling government party of Indonesia, which had a similar dampening effect on political competition."" The arrival of a new plant species is noted quickly by local farmers, who are acutely conscious of their environment and its economic potential. As it spread out from the road verges and became more widely recognized, Chromolaena came to be known as the ehau suf mutif (lit: white ?owered woody shrub) ."	The experience of many Timorese farmers is that Chromolaena reduces maize  yields. The effect was described as one where the roots (bafan) of  Chromolaena were etoo hotf (maput lefuf) and damaged those of the maize. The notion of excessive heat here represents a conventional metaphor used among Meto Timorese communities to describe illness or antagonism. Excessive heat is opposed to the coolness required for fertility and healthy life..h 	No data	"Timorese farmers managed to incorporate Lantana fairly effectively into their cropping systems. Indeed, the increase in biomass and Lantanafs soil conditioning properties tended to improve cropping conditions and to reduce the fallow period required in swidden cultivation systems. They were opposed to government efforts to control Lantana."	"Il Chamus Pastoralists, Lake Baringo "																																																																													
AP.7	"Ankila Hiremath, LA, Ch. 4"	22/06/2021 AH	Bekele et al. 2018. Impacts of woody invasive alien plant species on rural livelihood: Generalized propensity score evidence from Prosopis spp. invasion in Afar Region in Ethiopia	"Afar Pastoralists, agropastoralists in the Gabi Rasu zone, Afar Region of Ethiopia. 2016"	Randomly selected pastoralist-dominated households in three districts of the Zone. Survey	"Prosopis spp. (Refers to 'Prosopis' throughout. Species of Prosopis unspecified, though other studies from this region refer to Prosopis juliflora.)"	Spread	"gThe Afar pastoralists and agro-pastoralists highly depend for their livelihood on floodplains of the Awash River where they graze their livestock during the drought period and practice small-scale agriculture. Some recent studies revealed that the floodplains are either invaded or are under risk of invasion by Prosopis (Ayanu et al. 2015; Ilukor et al. 2016).

The dominant vegetation types in the study area are bushlands, shrublands, riverine forests, grasslands and seasonal marshes and swamps. Prosopis has recently encroached into all of these vegetations.h (Bekele et al. 2018, p.2)  gThe main Prosopis dispersing agents in the area are wildlife and livestock.h (Bekele et al. 2018, p.11)"	IAS	The impact of Prosopis on IPLC and their response is determined by the level of Prosopis invasion	Economic	"Impact of Prosopis on households depends on individual householdsf main source of income, and on householdsf net per capita consumption expenditure"	"Regulates microclimate, improves soil fertility, checks erosion, reduces salinity"	"Encroaches native habitats, suppressing natural vegetation types"	"Income from fuelwood, charcoal"	"Reduced income from livestock, increased expenditure on health (injuries to humans and livestock; increased incidence of malaria)"	No data	No data	"Eradication is difficult (labour intensive, expensive, and unlikely to be effective given long viability of seeds in the soil). It is also  socio-economically unacceptable given that people have come to depend on the species for income from charcoal-making). Controlling the species spread within certain limits likely to be more effectiv"	No data	Changes in livestock systems	"Reduction in pasture area, water resources, is forcing pastoralists to seek sources of income other than livestock-based incomes."	No data	No data	"Household's livelihood status (variable used=consumption expenditure) increases up to an optimal Prosopis invasion level of 22.23%, after which it declines. "	No data	No data	No data	Resource tenure	No data	"Charcoal-making led to unintented consquences for native forest (with native trees also being cut for charcoal, especially by non-Afar highlanders). "	"Charcoal-making led to conflicts, both inter- and  intra-tribal."	No data	"Conflicts over charcoal-making, deforestation of native trees."	No data	"gThe findings suggest that containing Prosopis invasion to less density (less than 22.23% of an area) may benefit the livelihoods of the region. The implication is that management strategies should take into account the invasion levels of each locality and the current socio-economic as well as ecological benefits of the plant, prior to instead of considering its complete removal as the only vital solution. Eradication ultimately becomes an effective action if it cannot give assurance on the potential of the species to re-introduce itself.h (Bekele et al. 2018, p.16)"	No data	No data	No data	"Use for fuelwood-, charcoal based incomes"	Afar pastoralists																																																																													
	"Tatsiana Lipinskaya, Fellow, Chpt1"	13/07/2021 TL	"Bhattacharyya et al., 2011 - The gWildh or gFeralh Distraction: Effects of Cultural Understandings on Management Controversy Over Free-Ranging Horses (Equus ferus caballus) Bhattacharyya et al., 2011"	"Tsilhqotfin First Nations people, Chilcotin region of British Columbia, North America, 2006?2010"	"Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal residents; elders and residents who were born and raised living on the land within the study area; other residents, ranchers, and people of European descent with and without family history in the study region; provincial government employees from the Ministry of Forests and Range (MFR) and the Ministry of Environment (MOE); and local members of environmental non-governmental organizations (NGOs). Many interview participants
are belong to more than one of the groups listed above. For example, some First Nations participants are also small-scale ranchers, government representatives, and grew up on the land. Staying in the study region for durations ranging from 2 weeks to 3 months, spring through early autumn of each year. Field time included participant observation and interviews with a variety of participants, as well as first-hand observation of free-roaming horses. Semi-structured, key informant interviews were then conducted with 20 participants who had local knowledge, experience, and/or a professional interest in the study area. Informal discussions with 10 additional participants were recorded as part of participant observation and field activities.

"	Free-roaming horses (Equus ferus caballus L.)	Spread	The number of free-ranging horses in the Chilcotin today remains uncertain. 	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	"pest species that competes with cattle for forage and contributes to range degradation
"	horses are increasingly used by community leaders as in the effort to engage youth in healthy physical activities that ground them in local cultural tradition	"do not yield any direct economic value, they are perceived by many people as a threat that warrants management and population control "	No data	No data	"No clear status of species ""wild"" or ""feral"""	impact on ecosystems	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	future management initiatives will be most successful if they deal openly with the cultural beliefs and context within which decisions about free-ranging horses are made.h 	"There is no clear concept, because of there is a discussion on gWildh or gFeralh"	"Hence when the range becomes degraded, overgrazed, or when there is not the desired amount of forage available for cattle, many ranchers express concern over there being gtoo manyh horses "	No data	"wild horses are conceptually integrated into the functional, spiritual, and cultural lives of many local First Nations people"																																																																														
	"Elena Tricarico, LA Chpt. 2"	2021/7/13	"Boll (2006) Following Garkman, the frog, in North Eastern Arnhem Land (Australia)"	"Two Aboriginal communities, G?ngan and Gapuwiyak, Australia"	Mainly men of the two Aboriginal communities G?ngan and Gapuwiyak; interviews	Cane toad Bufo marinus	Spread	No data	"Land-use and Sea-use change, Resource extraction"	"Land use change: the species was introduced to control some agricultural pests.
Resource extraction: intensive hunting exerted a high pressure on native fauna too, acting in concert with the impact of cane toad."	No data	No data	No data	The negative impact on biodiversity has been reported by Aboriginal communities (please see the word file for the details).	No data	"the species is heavily impacting species with cultural importance for Aboriginal communities, leading to the loss of traditional food, modification in totem species and traditional ceremonies and loss of cultural heritage"	No data	Cane toad were trapped and suppressed in 2004. 	The trapping campaign conducted in 2004 was successful and led to a decrease in toad number. 	To maintain native species (some of which are relevant for Aboriginal communities)	Conserve / protect threatened species	Cane toad started to be managed to protect native species.	No data	No data	No data	"Social, spiritual and cultural relations"	No data	"cane toad impacts on species important in spiritual ceremonies for Aboriginal communities, so they cannot fulfill their spiritual needs. Moreover, it can affect the cultural heritage and identity. "	"Resource tenure, Education/knowledge"	No data	"Resource tenure: Aboriginal communities have less access to species important for their needs. 
Education/Knowledge: the traditional knowledge that should be transmitted to young generation would be affected. "	No data	"Aboriginal people recognized the need to manage the species, in collaboration with white people. "	"Aboriginal people recognized the need to collaborate with white people to tackle the species. Indeed, a community effort activity has been carried out to trap the cane toad in 2004."	Aboriginal people retrieve knowledge on the species from their observations: e.g. they were not able to find so easily species once common in the past.	Aboriginal people underlined the necessity to do something and together with white people. 	Aboriginal communities know that cane toad gdoesnft belong to Dhalwangu countryh and considered it as a pest.	The experience of Aboriginal communities is that cane toad presence leads to a reduction in the abundance of native species and even to a disappearance of certain species (e.g. native frogs). 	No data	No data	Gangan and Gaupwiyak aboriginals																																																																													
SF.1	"Hanieh Saeedi, Fellow chapter 2"	2021/7/9	"Brattland et al, 2018. Social?ecological timelines to explore human adaptation to coastal change"	"Sami fjord fishermen in Finnmark, northern Norway"	"The FaLvllis project collected interviews conducted between 2001 and 2013, and carried out interviews with 27 fishermen and local residents (20 men and 7 women) "	"This paper is the result of a failed attempt to integrate the local ecological knowledge (LEK) of Sami fjord fishermen in marine science and management of a fjord ecosystem in Finnmark, northern Norway [MISSING DOESN'T BELONG HERE]"	Introduction 	"In the social?ecological history of the Porsanger fjord, the most recent change is the introduction of the king crab (Paralithodes camtschaticus) fishery, which is an alien invasive species (IAS) introduced to Norwegian fjords from the late 1990s. The king crab is currently managed both as an invasive and a commercial species, with an increasingly important role in the mix of livelihoods in coastal communitie"	"Biodiversity loss, Climate change"	No data	Socio-cultural	No data	No data	Impact of the seal invasion	"ffAt that time, both social and ecological events represent abrupt changes in the fjord ecosystem or in society, with great impact upon fishermenfs livelihoods and their ability to adapt. Based on an analysis of both previous studies and the participantsf emphasis on the importance of these changes relative to each other, we have identified two main phases separated by the harp seal invasion, the simultaneus crash in local fisheries, and the introduction of the vessel quota system as a socio-ecological tipping point (1986?1990) from which the fjord never recovered as a source of income for fishermen"	No data	No data	"Fisheries managemtn regulations, The current management system, however, favors effective vessels and fishermen with large capture capacity and spatial mobility"	"In terms of adaptations, the option of entering and re-entering the fishery as part of a flexible rural livelihood approach, however, seems to be constrained by the introduction of the vessel quota system in 1990. Even though opportunities to incorporate king crab fishery as part of traditional adaptations improved between 2004 and 2014, new rules seemed to create difficulties for the smallest group of fishermen, who are most likely to be combining fishing with other livelihoods. This may decrease the capacity to cope with further changes such as increased ocean temperatures and thus even more unpredictable ecological conditions in the future."	"With the increasing urgency of transitioning into a new and green economy driven by climate change, investing in electrified vessels could be a relevant adaptation option for municipalities like Porsanger"	"Manage invasive species as a resource , Changes in fishing systems"	No data	"The main mechanism for this positive reorganization was a policy that favored the participation of small-scale fishermen in the king crab fishery and allowed for incorporation of a king crab quota into the already existing vessel quota system that was introduced in 1990. In 2015 however, changes to the king crab management system restricted the fishery to vessels above 6 m of length out of animal health concerns, thus closing out around 50 fishermen in Eastern Finnmark from the fishery if they did not invest in larger vessels "	No data	"ffFor fishermen in Eastern Finnmark and in Porsanger, the red king crab quota represents a new beginning as the cod fishery alone was not able to provide enough income for households in the communities after its decline. This option is, however, only currently available to those with vessels above 6 m. Since the introduction of the red king crab, the SESs in parts of the Finnmark coast have been transformed as a result of adaptive strategies employed both by the local population and local governments. While these strategies were initiated locally, they were made possible by environmental change (introduction of the red king crab fishery and recovery of the cod stocks) as well as strategies at a larger governance scale (changes in fisheries regulations and political and economic support from the authorities).ff (Brattland et al., 2018, 11)"	"Health (mental and physical), Social, spiritual and cultural relations"	Impact of fishermenfs livelihood	No data	Resource tenure	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	IAS as an introduced species.	No data	No data	No data	Sami fjord fisherman in Finnmark																																																																													
SF.2	"Patricia Howard, LA Chpt. 6"	2021/7/16	Broderstad & Erythorsson. 2014. Resilient communities? Collapse and recovery of a social-ecological system in Arctic Norway 	"Predominantly Saami (but also Finnish and Norwegian) coastal fisheries communities in Pors??gu/Porsanger fjord and V?rjat vuotna /Varanger fjord in Finnmark, the northern-most county of Norway. 1993-2010"	"56 fishers, 12 'local people'. The 18 interviews with fishers/members of fishing households in 2008-2010. Data from Unj?rga/Nesseby in V?rjat vuotna from 38 interviews with active and retired fishers. 2 interviews with municipal employees in Unj?rga in 2005. 12 interviews with local people in Unj?rga in 2010. Secondary data."	Red king crab (Paralithodes camtschaticus)	Establishment	"During the 1960s and 1970s, Russian scientists transported live red king crabs from the Pacific Ocean and released them in the Barents Sea.It expanded westward into Norwegian waters, appearing in the V?rjat vuotna in the early 1990s - a decade later, arrived in Pors??gu. The species is now well established in both fjords."	"Natural drivers, IAS, Resource extraction"	"Natural: Inmigration of harp seals followed by total disappearance of cod; depletion of kelp forests due to increased population of sea urchins, reducing habitat for juvenile cod and other fish; Resource extraction: local fishers blame cod decline on over-fishing by Danish seiners; IAS - red king crab invasion irreversibly changed fjord ecosystem. Cod and kelp forests recovered in Varjat fjord 10 years after collapse, but in Porsangu fjord, ecosystem hasn't yet recovered 2.5 decades after cod collapse."	"Science, technology, and knowledge, Politics, governance and institutions, Socio-cultural"	"Science: Red king crab released by Russian scientists in the Barents Sea. Governance: Russia initially claimed ownership of Red king crab stock so fishing not allowed until 2005. Modification of fisheries governance regime: larger fish quotas, exclusion of large vessels and active fishing gear. Governance innovation in red king crab management regime that favors local small-scale fishers - brought about by pressure from the Sami Parliament established at the same time that cod stocks collapsed. Sami Parliament financial support for small-scale fisheries. Socio-cultural: Sami small-scale fishers' traditional dependence on fishing, ability to organise politically. "	Biodiversity loss.	"Recent results from biological research indicate that the impact of this invasive species on the bottom fauna in the fjords has been substantial. Red king crab is considered a pest for the traditional cod fishery, "	No data 	"When red king crab first turned up in Norwegian waters, i.e., in V?rjat vuotna, in the early 1990s, it was considered a pest; it got tangled in gill nets and caused economic losses for the fishers. Now, catches of red king crab have provided a substantial source of income for the Sami small-scale fisheries in the fjords east of Davvinj?rga "	"In principle, red king crab is an alien species to be kept out of Norwegian waters at all costs."	"cfishers.. realized the considerable income potential of red king crab fishery. As a compromise,  has been allowed in a zone east of Davvinj?rga, whereas only gcatch for the purpose of eliminationh is allowed in other areas. As red king crab is considered a pest for the traditional cod fishery, a compensation principle was applied in the first allocation of crab quotas: only fishers who had caught and delivered a certain quantity of cod could apply; as  cod was in short supply, the rule was unfavorable to small-scale fishers, and many didn't qualify. In 2008, after pressure from the Sami Parliament and coastal Sami fisheries association gBivdi,h established in 2005, all open group small-scale fishing vessels (i.e., < 11 m length) that were registered in the gcommercial zoneh east of Davvinj?rga/North Cape were allowed to participate."	No data 	"To benefit from Red King crab fisheries. Due to pressure from Sami Parliament and fisherfs association, King crab commercial fisheries have been allowed in a zone east of Davvinj?rga, whereas only gcatch for the purpose of eliminationh is allowed in other areas."	Changes in fishing systems	"Overall, between 1988 and 2012, the number of fishers increased in Unj?rga, whereas in Pors??gu it was still < 50% of the 1988 number.  The most likely explanation of the different pattern of development in the two communities during the 1990s is the difference in the availability of fish and king crab in the two fjordsc.thecsudden increase in the number of fishers in both communities since 2010 may be found in local actorsf responses to a combination of ecological and governance factors."	No data	Capital for investments in fishing provided by the Sami Parliament.	"Collapse of cod fisheries, then restoration in one fjord, and no restoration in the second fjord; fisheries in both include Red King crab, where the latter saved small-scale fisheries."	"Material and immaterial assets, Freedom of choice or action"	"Catches of red king crab have provided a substantial source of income for the Sami small-scale fisheries in the fjords east of Davvinj?rga. Moreover, fishing for red king crab and cod can easily be combined, as the fishing seasons are different.  Freedom of choice or action: in the face of collapse, political organisation and resilience permitted adaptation."	No data	"Governance institutions , Resource tenure"	"Governance institutions ? establishment of the Sami Parliament largely coincided with collapse of cod fisheries. Resource tenure: Sami parliament and fishing association have become an effective body for negotiating Sami fishing rights that are different from non-Sami (small-scale fisheries) rights in relation to King Crab - other areas, gains have been modest. Combined with changes in fisheries governance, the arrival of red king crab has opened up a new livelihood option for fishers, resulting in a transformation of the fishery that has been beneficial for the communities."	No data	"Sami Parliament had to compromise with government over fisheries regulations, and govenment refusal to accept fisheries governance reforms that would have granted Sami greater rights. A majority of SP representatives voted in favor, but this was strongly contested among many coastal Sami. A large minority within the SP voted against it, arguing that the concessions offered by the ministry were too small and could easily be withdrawn by future governments.  "	"The SP has had an impact on fisheries governance and the conditions for local fishing communities through financial support and political initiatives. The SP came into existence in 1989, at a time of crisis in the cod fisheries. The fisheries crisis in coastal Sami districts became one of its first core issues. The SP soon gained status as a legitimate voice for the concerns of Sami small-scale fishers, a marginalized group within the Norwegian Fishermenfs Association. The parliament has been engaged in a long-term political struggle to secure fishing rights and access to the fishery for Sami fishers, and, although the results of the SPs initiatives to reform fisheries policies during the past 20 years have been modest, some progress has been made, as the new management regime for red king crab demonstrates."	"The Sami Parliament gained status as a legitimate voice for the concerns of Sami small-scale fishers, a marginalized group within the Norwegian Fishermenfs AssociationcThe Norwegian Fishermenfs Association initially criticized the arrangement as discriminatory but has now more or less accepted it as an exception to the general rule of equal access to the fishery, irrespective of residence. According to the 2006 consultation agreement between the SP and the Norwegian government, grounded in International Labour Organization Convention 169 on Indigenous and Tribal Peoples in Independent Countries, the SP has a right to be consulted on all matters of importance for the Sami."	No data.	"there is reason to believe that the sum of governance changes invoked by SP fisheries policies since 1989, investment support for the small-scale fleet, improved access to the cod and red king crab fishery for open group fishers, and better resource protection within the fjord areas through prohibition of fishing with active gear inside the fjord lines have had a significant impact on the fisheries in Unj?rga and Pors??gu and contributed to the recent rise in the number of fishers."	Initially seen as a pest but later as a major economic resource.	Initially seen as a pest but later as a major economic resource.	"local fishermen usually explain cod disappearance as an effect of excessive fishing by Danish seiners on local cod populations ? in a few sites, cod has begun to recover, but The coastal cod stock complex has been dramatically reduced since the 1980s and has been listed as severely threatened since 2006."	"During the 1990s, red king crab gradually became a source of income for Unj?rga fishers, and, because the cod had returned, the traditional cod fishery could now be combined with the new crab fishery. In Pors??gu, the options in the 1990s were different. With a cod crisis starting in the period from 1987 to 1989 and with no alternative commercial species available in the fjord, municipal support and SP funds could not effectively maintain the local fishery until red king crab turned up in 2005. Combined with changes in fisheries governance, the arrival of red king crab has opened up a new livelihood option for fishers, resulting in a transformation of the fishery that has been beneficial for the communities. Odd as it may seem, an irreversible change in the ecosystem has contributed positively to the reorganization and resilience of the social-ecological system.  "	"Saami - other fishing communities, Finnmark"																																																																													
	"Ankila Hiremath, LA, Ch. 4"	01/07/2021 AH	Chandrasekaran and Swamy 2016. Ecological and Socioeconomic Impacts of Prosopis juliflora Invasion in the Semiarid Ecosystems in Selected Villages of Ramnad District in Tamil Nadu. 	"Village communities in the Ramnad district of Tamil Nadu, India"	"Farmers, charcoal makers in selected study villages. Vegetation surveys, household surveys, semi-structured interviews"	Prosopis juliflora	Spread	"""This weed further reduced the cropping area (net average sown area was 58% in the year 1993, 26% in 2002 and only 3% in 2010) at the study sites (Table 18.1) .h (Chandrasekaran and Swamy 2016, p. 350)  c. ""This made the farmers to leave their lands uncultivated and promoted the growth of P. juliflora which provided guaranteed income, though lower than the traditional crops. This practice turns into uncontrolled proliferation of this exotic plant in almost all the ecosystems, since alkalinity, salinity and water deficit are not limiting factors for the growth of P. juliflora (Laxen 2007). The weed further intruded into village ponds"" (Chandrasekaran and Swamy 2016, p. 351)"	No data	No data	Economic	"Initial invasion of rainfed crop lands prompted farmers to abandon cultivation (for guaranted livelihoods based on the invasive species). This in turn further promoted invasion by the species, Prosopis julflora, into other surrounding habitats."	"Increase in abundance of animals, birds (deer, foxes, rodents, rabbits, peacocks) due to additional habitat provided by Prosopis. "	Reduced biomass and diversity of native plants	"Charcoal-making, which is as economically beneficial as rainfed rice cultivation (and more reliable)."	"Encroachment of ponds/traditional rainwater harvesting structures by Prosopis led to reduced water availability for people and livestock; Prosopis encroackment reduced cropping area; habitat provided by Prosopis to peacocks, rabbits, led to greater crop damage by these species. Adoption of charcoal-making promoted spread of Prosopis, reducing grazing land (and livestock holdings) "	No data	No data	No data	No data	Utilisation of invasive species	"Utilization of Prosopis in preference to cropping led to a change in land use; utilization of Prosopis also promoted the spread of Prosopis to other areas, including grazing lands, leading to reduced cattle numbers. "	"Village residents are all connected with charcoal-making in varying ways. There are three main tasks associated with charcoal making, with one of these highly specialized, involving skilled labourers. "	No data	Charcoal-making is as lucrative as rainfed rice cultivation and has replaced it. 	Material and immaterial assets	"Initially harmful for those practicing rainfed agriculture, since the species encroached crop lands. People responded by adopting charcoal-making, which has turned out to be as lucrative as cropping (and more reliable)."	"Harmful for those who rear livestock, given the encroachment of grazing lands by Prosopis"	No data	No data	No data	No data	"People decided to adopt charcoal making as an activity that was more reliable than rainfed cropping, and as lucrative as cropping."	No data	No data.	No data	No data	No data	No data	Prosopis-based charcoal-making has been adopted as a source of livelihoods in lieu of rainfed cropping. 																																																																														
	"Patricia Howard, LA Chpt. 6"	2021/7/8	"Chikoye et al., 2000. Characteristics of speargrass (Imperata cylindrica) dominated fields in West Africa: crops, soil properties, farmer perceptions and management strategies."	"1996-97, 329 swidden farmers growing 21 crops; some cotton & food crop monocultures but mainly polyculture - 67 different combinations involving 2-6 crops. Cote d'Ivoire, Benin, and  Nigeria, 40 infested villages each."	" In each village two types of interviews were conducted,  village level and farmer interviews. The village interview consisted of adult male and female members of the village."	"Imperata cylindrica perinneal grass from Asia. Among the frequently cited weeds ranked in order of seriousness besides speargrass (ranked 1st), were Commelina benghalensis L., Digitaria nuda Schumach, Tridax procum-bens L., and Cyperus rotundus L. in the CDS (Table 3). In the SGS, C. benghalensis, Rottboellia cochinchinensis (Lour.) Clayton, Digitaria horizontalis Willd., Striga spp., T. procumbens, Euphorbia heterophylla L., and C. rotundus were perceived as the most devastating weeds"	Spread	"In West Africa, a serious weed of intensive agriculture particularly in areas prone to recurrent burning in the coastal/derived savanna. In W Africa, occupies a broad area from Senegal to Cameroon, and from the coast in the south to the arid Sudan in the north."	IAS	"In both ecological zones, 88 different species were reported to be important weeds of commonly grown crops. Fifty-five per cent of the respondents indicated that speargrass was the most serious weed across ecological zones. Especially in areas prone to recurrant burning."	No data	No data	No data	No data	"some farmers indicated that speargrass was an important source of cheap roofing material, animal fodder and medicines"	"Averaged over ecological zones,, impacts in order of decreasing importance were : reduces crop yield, limits field size to that family labour can handle, increases labour requirements for weeding, causes physical injury to the skin, reduces quality of tuber crops, increases the occurrence of bush fires in perennial crops, and increases the incidence of insects and pathogens of economic crops. The negative effects of speargrass were given different rating depending on the zone"	Intercrops of contrasting phenology maintain complete canopy cover over the ground for a relatively longer time thereby preventing weed seed germination through reduced soil temperature and changes in spectral light quality to non-optimal levels 	"33-35% use hoe-weeding, 3-20% use slashing. Hoe weeding required 3-4 times per cropping season. 32% slash or use fire to remove excess vegetation before hoe-tillage.  15% use hoes or oxen-drawn implements. Helps control by fragmenting rhizomes; stimulates sprouting that can then be controlled; brings rhizomes to surface where desiccated, or burys them deep, preventing or delaying sprouting. 8-11% use fallowing. 4-20% use grazing. Intercrops of contrasting phenology maintain complete canopy cover relatively longer. 19-26% use remounding: mounds made during seedbed preparation; soil that accumulates in furrows is scraped and placed (back) on  mounds, burying weeds. Performed during the 2nd or 3rd weeding. 7-12% use fire to remove excess vegetation before hoe-tillage. 8% clear fields with fire but know it doesnft control Imperata effectively but it is cheaper than other methods. 2-3% use herbicides."	"Constraints:  Most said can't develop sustainable management strategies due to: lack of capital (62.9%),  management options (13.8%), labour (8.3%), equipment (6.6%),  herbicides (2.2%), and health problems (6.6%). Overall: Farmers integrate practices for more effective suppression, e.g. use of fallow  combined w/ burning or slashing & herbicides or hoe-weeding."	"Avoid crop losses, high labour requirements"	No data	No data	14-19% report requires more labour. (8.3%) say they lack adequate labour.	"farmers indicated that they lack resources to effectively manage speargrassMost farmers indicated that they could not develop sustainable management strategies for speargrass because they lacked capital (62.9% of the respondents). Other reasons were lack of better management options (13.8%), lack of equipment (6.6%), and non-availability of herbicides  "	21-26% report crop yield loss; 26-24% report limits farm size due to excessive requirements for weeding.	"Material and immaterial assets, Health (mental and physical)"	No data	Assets: 26-24% report limits farm size;  14-19% report that it requires more labour; 21-26% report crop yield losses. Health: 16-18% report that it harms skin.	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data.	No data.	No data.	"Given that farmers indicated that they lack resources to effectively manage speargrass, development of improved technology which do not demand high monetary investment should be a priority"	No data.	"Averaged over ecological zones, the presence of spear-grass was undesirable because farmers felt, in decreasing order of importance, that it reduces crop yield, limits field size to that family labour can handle, increases labour requirements for weeding, causes physical injury to the skin, reduces quality of tuber crops, increases the occurrence of bush fires in perennial crops, and increases the incidence of insects and pathogens of economic crops. The negative effects of speargrass were given different rating depending on the . 21-26% report crop yield loss; 7-10% report increases fire hazard; 4-5% report harbours pests/diseases. 26-24% report limits farm size; 14-19% report requires more labour; 16-18% report harms skin."	No data.	"Use of Imperata for medicine, roof thatching, livestock fodder."	"Swidden farmers, Cote d'Ivoire, Benin, Nigeria"																																																																													
	"Patricia Howard, LA Chpt. 6"	2021/7/9	"Chikoye et al., 2006. Farmersf perceptions of the speargrass (Imperata cylindrica) problem and its control in the lowland sub-humid savannah of Nigeria."	"41 rural communities in 2002, rapid rural appraisal. Agriculture, especially cassava and yam, most important but 15 livelihood sources in all. Benue, Cross River and Kogi States, Nigeria."	Community workshops in 3 villages across the states; extension workers from the State or Local Governments held group discussions with members of 38 other communities in the three states. Rapid rural appraisal	Imperata cylindrica	Spread	"Serious problem in lowland sub-humid zones of West and Central Africa where forests have been cleared for intensive agriculture or in areas where there is a high occurrence of bush fires during the dry season. Actual area under infestation is unknown, approximately 167 million ha of land in the sub-humid lowlands are potentially at risk since speargrass is most common and effects are most severe in this zone."	"IAS, Land-use and Sea-use change, Natural drivers, Resource extraction"	Farmers report (% reporting): IAS -  20% underground rhizomes that could not be controlled by traditional weed control options. Natural:  spread of speargrass seed by wind (10%); soil type (10%). Land use change: deforestation (20% of farmers) caused IAS spread: Deforestation was caused by the increase in farming activities (15%) and clearing to build houses (5%). Resource extraction: hunting directly or indirectly leads to spread.	"Science, technology, and knowledge, Economic"	"Technology: Farmers in different communities had different views of drivers of invasion:  in Tarka declining soil fertility, continuous cropping, bush burning (70% of respondents), and hunting. In Emere, problems in rank order: weeds including speargrass, poor soil fertility, crop pests (e.g., termites, rodents) and diseases. Youths ranked soil fertility as their most serious problem while the elders ranked weeds as the most important."	No data	No data	No data 	Farmersf efforts to intensify crop production with population growth are undermined by high infestation in all crops (up to 11). Identified as the most important constraint to crop production in all villages 	No data	"11 control techniques were identified, the most widely used being hand-pulling, burning, hoe-weeding, slashing with a cutlass, and a limited use of chemicals and legume cover crops in some areascIn all communities, the most widely used techniques employed by farmers were hand-pulling (100%), hoe-weeding (95%), burning (85%) and weeding with a cutlass (75%). Deep hoe tillage (30%), some plough. 2% use velvet bean cover crop introduced by extension. 30% fallow (4 years); 2% allow reafforestation; 1% use herbicide (about 12 villages mentioned it)."	"Hand weeding: rhizomes removed but can remove crops, danger from snakes, time consuming. Slashing - fast and immediate control but has to be done frequently as Imperata returns. Dig out rhizomes - very effective but labour intensive. Cover crop - only 2 weeding but with late harvest, re-emerges. Velvetbean takes a long time to suppress Imperata, labour intensive, can suppress crops and reduce yields. Fallow improves soil fertility, suppresses Imperata fora short time, uses productive land, death of economic trees ends fallow. Reafforestation - Imperata shaded out but economic trees are killed. Fallowing/afforestation impractical due to limited land access. Herbicides: high cost, lack of skilled labour, knowledge, damage to crops, low availability, sometimes lack effectiveness. 80% said reduces weeds to below damaging levels if done 3-4 times / season. 80-83% see hand-hoeing and habitat modification as good; 76% said hand-weeding was fair. Manual methods suitable for small fields and moderate infestation. Deep tillage is labour-intensive."	"Avoid crop losses, high labour requirements, increase cropping intensity"	No data	No data	Some methods have high labour demands - are labour intensive. Women and children provide most labour. But very few said that time spent on weeding was a constraint. Lack skilled labour and knowledge for herbicides	Herbicides: sprayers and chemicals are unaffordable	"Reduced crop yields if not controlled. Reduced crop yields  - worst affected are the most important crops (cassava and yam Farmersf efforts to intensify crop production with +Y16+Z16+[@[Changes in GQL of individuals, households, or other groups within communities (drop-down menu multiple choice)]]"	Material and immaterial assets	No data	"Reduced crop yields  - worst affected are the most important crops (cassava and yam). This where, according to farmers' own wealth ranking, 20% in 2 communities, and 50% in the third, are considered poor, who have inadequate access to food."	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	Only ILK	'a farmer innovation that challenges the expert advice of cocoa agronomists ... striking example of local farmer ecological intensification by local farmersc successful agrosuccessional restoration resulting from farmersf experience with complex plant associations that evolve over time.h Shows that cocoa cultivation can be a reforestation agent 	No data	"No data, but invasion served as one motivation for conversion of cropland to agroforestry system."	No data	"Threat to cropping system, successful conversion of invaded grasslands to agroforestry system based on ILK, reinforcing ILK"	"Swidden farmers, 41 rural communities, Benue, Cross River states"																																																																													
	"Romina Fernandez, Fellow Chpt.4"	09/07/2021 RF	"Cid-Aguayo 2020-SALMONES CHINOOK EN CHILE: DE INVASI?N BIOL?GICA A OPORTUNIDAD SOCIOECON?MICA, MEDIANTE LA AUTOGESTI?N SOSTENIBLE DEL RECURSO DE USO COM?N"	"The artisanal fishermen of La Barra de Tolt?n, southern Chile"	artisanal fishermen from the Tolt?n river estuary/interview	"Chinook salmon, salm?n real o chinuc, Oncorhynchus tshawytscha"	Spread	"Since approximately 2010, La Caleta suffered a severe crisis due to the almost total depletion of its resourcesh they said: ""It is that when the salmon arrives, the r?balo is lost, because the Chinook is very predatory. (...) the puye also disappeared and it was said that the salmon could have been one of the predators of that type of ... perhaps if it was true or it was not true, but many species disappearedh. gThis caused a period of unemployment and poverty: gThen I will tell you to such an extent that poverty came to this Caleta that they had to make a list and ask the municipality for boxes of merchandisehc gIn this context, the first returns of salmon were registered that for the fishermen it was an unknown and unmanageable species. For the 2014-2015 season, the return reached 54.86 tons, approximately 12,600 specimensh "	Land-use and Sea-use change	"""During the 20th century, varieties of salmonids were introduced, especially rainbow trout and coffee. Then a second cycle of introduction occurred during the 1980s, with the development of the farmed salmon industry. With the support of Fundaci?n Chile, experiments were carried out with free-living salmon farming (""sea ranching""), releasing eggs in various basins in south central Chile"""	No data	No data	No data	"""The reproductive runs and subsequent death in rivers, transports marine nutrients to freshwater ecosystems and increases other populations of introduced salmonids, by providing them with food (Soto et al., 2007). Subsequently, the juveniles are integrated for two years as predators to the rivers and the mature specimens do the same in marine environments"""	"""It is not a legal fishing so far, everyone knows that here. But it is what we have and what we sustain ourselves (...) Salmons have been the resource that we have had, whether legal or not legal, for 'being able to live', sustaining ourselves, has been a good resource"""	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	Utilisation of invasive species	"gThe Chinook bonanza is perceived by fishermen as ""the goose that lays the golden eggs""; resource, although problematic, at the same time valuable and disputed between different interest groups, and that must be taken care of for its long-term reproduction"""	"gThe fishery moved from the sea to the estuary, from day to night and from a community practice to a family practiceh "	No data	"hFor the community, the arrival of the Chinook represented an improvement in their quality of life and the densification of their economies. Not only did the income from fishing increase, but also a small tourism of recreational fishermen was developed that seek to take advantage of the return of the Chinook, promoting the development of small hotels and restaurantsh "	Material and immaterial assets	"""Not only did the income from fishing increase, but also a small tourism of recreational fishermen was developed that seek to take advantage of the return of the Chinook, promoting the development of small hotels and restaurants"""	No data	Resource tenure	"gFor the community, the arrival of the Chinook represented an improvement in their quality of life and the densification of their economiesh"	No data	No data	No data	No data	" gWe listened when the Chinook salmon appeared on TV, but we never imagined that it would appear here (...) we did not know how to catch salmonh "	"gThe benefit depends on us that we also take care of the salmon, independent that is predatory, today it is giving sustainability to our cove. We cannot teach the salmon not to eat the puyes either, but we have the possibility that it might also serve to maintain a chain of salmon that supports the estuaryh "	No data	"""It is that when the salmon arrives, the r?balo is lost, because the Chinook is very predatory. (...) the puye also disappeared and they said that the salmon could have been one of the predators of that type of ... perhaps if it was true or it was not true, but a lot of species disappeared"" "	No data	"gSalmons have been the resource that we have had, whether legal or not, to be able to live by, sustain ourselves, it has been a good resourceh "	Artisanal fisherman of La Barra de Tolten																																																																													
	"Elena Tricarico, LA Chpt. 2"	2021/7/14	Costanza et al. (2017) The Precarious State of a Cultural Keystone Species: Tribal and Biological Assessments of the Role and Future of Black Ash	"Native Americans, USA"	"A group of basket-tree harvesters from Maine (Wabanaki tribes) and upstate New York (Saint Regis Mohawk Tribe), a group of black ash researchers; joint workshop "	Emerald ash borer (EAB) (Agrilus planipennis Fairmaire) 	Spread	g.. the EAB invasion nonetheless continues to spread and threaten what remains of this unique (black ash tree) resource (Siegert et al. 2015)h (Costanza et al. 2017)	No data	No data	Socio-cultural	"Tribal basket-tree harvesters rely on black ash for making baskets, a Native American tradition with cultural and spiritual significance. So they are interested in managing EAB. "	No data	"EAB is heavily impacting native ash trees, decimating them."	No data	EAB could impact the traditional basket-tree harvesting (and making) of Native Americans. 	"Some recommendations were provided to prevent EAB arrival and impacts (e.g. increasing black ash harvesting, collaboration between government and tribal agencies)"	"Initially, they should focus on slowing EAB spread, and then managing it (e.g. reducing EAB densities)."	There are gaps in black ash biology and ecology while this information is necessary to better tackle EAB. 	To protect native black ash and allow the survival of traditional activities.	Conserve / protect threatened species	EAB is threating one of the cultural keystone species for Native Americans who are interesting in protecting it. 	No data	No data	Production of basket could be heavily affected by EAB.	"Material and immaterial assets, Social, spiritual and cultural relations"	No data	"Material and immaterial assets: EAB is impacting black ash trees that are used for making baskets by Native Americans.  Social, spiritual relationships: black ash tree is a cultural keystone species for Native Americans, so its loss could have a heavy impact on local tribes.  "	Cultural institutions	No data	"g..Yet the speciesf cultural significance goes beyond weaving baskets; black ash is at the spiritual center of the tribesf teachings, including one of their creation stories..h (Costanza et al. 2017)"	No data	"Native Americans rely on TEK to manage IAS, with an integrated sustainable approach (chemical treatments are not considered). 48% of Native American respondents manage IAS."	A better collaboration is required between nontribal and Native Americans to manage IAS. 	No data	"gcsome Native Americans and agencies are currently working together effectively to address these issues (IAS management) in their geographic areas. There is also a growing consensus toward preventing the introduction of pests to new areas, including planning for rapid identification and response once pests are discoveredh. (Alexander et al. 2017)"	"No data, [but Native Americans seem to know which species are IAS]."	"Native Americans are concerned for the negative impacts caused by most common pests on plants necessary for them for food, other products and cultural purposes. "	No data	No data	"Wabanaki, Saint Regis Mohawk tribes"																																																																													
	"Bharat B Shrestha, LA Ch. 6"	2021/11/7	"Dangles, et al. (2010). Community-Based Participatory Research Helps Farmers and Scientists to Manage Invasive Pests in the Ecuadorian Andes. AMBIO, 39(4), 325?335. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13280-010-0041-4"	"Kichwa communities living between 2800 and 4250 m of altitude in in the central Ecuadorian province of Bolivar, canton of Guaranda, parish of Simiatug. October?December 2006"	"13 farmers (aged between 17 and 25; 11 men, 2 women) belonged to 13 different Kichwa communities. They were also were also the students in an adult high school program in Agriculture in the main town of Simiatug. Negotiation of research objectives and process with local communities; selection of informants and training; data collection by the informants (use of three traps ? one for each of the 3 species ? in each of 13 community sites; monitored for 8 weeks)."	"Potato tuber moths (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae): Phthorimaea operculella, Tecia solanivora, and Symmetrischema tangolias. They were introduced to Northern Andes of Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia through successive introductions from different origins."	Establishment	"Trends: There is not temporal trend analyzed/documented but spatial trend was derived from analyses of the data collected by the informants. gTecia solanivora showed a significant exponential decrease in abundance with an increase in remoteness from the closest to the farthest village to Simiatug (exponential, R2 = 0.62, P<0.01). In contrast, Symmetrischema tangolias and Phthorimaea operculella densities show no significant trend as a function of remoteness (R2<0.25 and P>0.47 for all models)h. "	No data	No data	No data	No data from IPLC. But the analysis of data collected by IPLC revealed that proximity to urban center (low remoteness) was related with high incidence of one of the three invasive species considered	No data	No data	No data	No data	gThe main specific management action taken by farmers was the systematic checking for PTM [Potato tuber moth species] when buying potato tubers in the Simiatug market before transportation to their communityh. 	No data	No data	"gAt the beginning of the session, there was a consensus among farmers about the need of implementing a pest management program in their valley. Together with freeze, pests were indeed the most important problem putting at risk their crops, especially potatoesh. "	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	"gTogether with freeze, pests were indeed the most important problem putting at risk their crops, especially potatoesh"	No data	"gIn talking with farmers at community meetings, they acknowledged that they were not aware of the risks caused by PTM before the participatory research (this was conformed by our questionnaire; see Fig. 3). Adult captures in pheromone traps revealed, however, the existence of infestation by PTM in the Simiatug valley, which was confirmed by the detection of larvae in potato storage surveysh "	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	"Kichwa people, Ecuador"																																																																													
	"Romina Fernandez, Fellow Chpt.4"	04/07/2021 RF	Day et al. 2012-Mikania micrantha Kunth (Asteraceae) (Mile-a-Minute): Its Distribution and Physical and Socioeconomic Impacts in Papua New Guinea	Local farmers from Papua New Guinea (PNG) 	"local farmers/ Field work, modeling and interviews with farmers"	"Mikania micrantha, mile-a-minute"	spread	"gMikania micrantha has become increasingly invasive in PNG, particularly over the past 10 yr, and is now present in all 15 lowland provincesh "	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	"g27% of respondents considered M. micrantha had some benefits, with 20% using the weed to treat cuts, 5% using it as a medicine for stomachachesh "	"gAt many sites, M. micrantha smothered a variety of crop plants, in particular taro, banana, and papayah"	No data	"""96% of subsistence mixed cropping farmers using mainly physical control methodsh...""The use of herbicides was generally confined to the commercial or semicommercial farming practices, with 30% of respondents using herbicides"" "	"""The use of herbicides was generally restricted to commercial or semicommercial practices where income is greater and the cost can be justified. Moreover, the use of herbicides resulted in better and thus less-frequent control in such land use practices than in subsistence mixed cropping areash "	Farmers: To maintain crop yields	Changes in cropping systems	gThere was no significant difference in the proportion of farmers (?75%) in subsistence mixed cropping systems and other farming systems who believed M. micrantha reduces the yield of their cropsh 	No data	No data	No data	Material and immaterial assets	"""27% of respondents considered M. micrantha had some benefits, with 20% using the weed to treat cuts, 5% using it as a medicine for stomachaches, and the remaining 1% using it as a cover crop to control other weeds"""	"""Presence of M. micrantha reduces the yield of cropsh "	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	"""C. odorata utilisation should be integrated with other control methods to achieve sustainable management of the species"" ""C. odorata utilisation is still limited to Asia and West Africa where the Asian/West Africa biotype is invasive. Therefore, there is a need for studies on the potential benefits of the southern African biotype on human well-being and livelihoods"""	No data	No data	No data	No data	Small farmers																																																																													
	"Ankila Hiremath, LA, Ch. 4"	17/06/2021 AH	"Duenn et al. 2017. Rabari Shepherds and the Mad Tree: The Dynamics of Local Ecological Knowledge in the Context of Prosopis juliflora Invasion in Gujarat, India"	"Rabari pastoralists, Kutch District, Gujarat state, North-West India. 2016"	"Pastoralists (89 individuals, males and females) representing a range of ages including 8 children (between 11-15 years old). interviews that combined structured questionnaires with semi-structured, open-ended questions"	"Prosopis juliflora, locally known as Gando Bawar (Mad Bawar) or Pardesi Bawar (Foreign Bawar) as distinct from the Desi Bawar (the native Acacia nilotica)."	Spread	"""Nowadays, P. juliflora has become the most distributed, abundant, and aggressively encroaching species of Kutchfs rangelands, spreading from 378 km2 in 1980 to 684 km2 in 1992, suggesting an 81% increase (Tewari et al. 2000). ).h (Duenn et al. 2017, p. 563)"	No data	No data	"Science, technology, and knowledge"	"Introduced to ameliorate saline soils, and as a source of timber, fuelwood, fibre (latter half of 19th century); promoted by the government from the 1970s onward to check desertification and soil salinization. "	No data	"Prosopis replacing native vegetation. ""...changing prevalence of vegetation is largely due to the spread of P. juliflora and that the types of vegetation that have disappeared or decreased are mostly eemithoff species."" (Duenn et al. 2017, p. 570-571)"	"Prosopis provides pods that are useful as fodder during lean periods (but eaten in excess they cause problems for livestock--""if they eat it every two days it creates no problems,
but too much makes the teeth fallff (Duenn et al. 2017, p. 571)"	"""...respondents immediately started explaining its negative effects, highlighting that there were no positive effects for pastoralism. The three topics that were repeatedly listed are 1) health problems for animals and humans, 2) effects on native ecosystems, and 3) blocking migration paths (Duenn et al. 2017, p. 571). Also, Prosopis leaves contaminate water sources (and Prosopis blocks access to water sources)."	No data	No data	No data	No data	Utilisation of invasive species	"Use Prosopis wood as firewood, as fencing for livestock. Use the gum from the tree to make sweets. Use the pods as fodder during pinch periods, Use a paste of the leaves to treat skin injuries. "	No data	No data	No data	Material and immaterial assets	No data	"Health: Injuries to people, livestock; Material/immaterial assets: Reduce access to grazing and water reources; Social relations: Create conflicts with farmers who do not want livestock on their lands (dispersing Prosopis seeds), with firewood collectors (who spread thorns) and with other pastoralists (competition for reduced grazing areas."	Resource tenure	No data	"Reduced access to grazing, water resources"	Conflicts with farmers (livestock perceived as dispersers of Prosopis); with other pastoralists (due to reduced grazing resources); with firewood collectors (who spread thorns)	No data	No data	No data	No data	"""Respondents gave several explanations of why they refer to P. juliflora as eemadff and eepoisonous,ff including because of its fast spread in Kutch and its resistance to removal, the pointy shape of its thorns as a representative for its physical characteristics, and its negative effects on the native vegetation, animals, and humans.h (Duenn et al. 2017, p. 566)"	"Although most people perceived Prosopis as an environmental change with negative impacts, there were differences between the way men and women perceived it (with more men than women mentioning it as a problem). There were also differences in perception by age. Younger people who saw the impacts of the species as negative tended to be those whose parents were still practicing pastoralism."	No data	"Despite the challenges posed by Prosopis, people have incorporporated its use for various purposes: as firewood, as fencing, pods as supplementary fodder, for medicinal uses. "	Rabari pastoralists																																																																													
	"Ellen Ryan-Colton, fellow CH4"	23/8/2021 ERC	Ens et al 2016. Creating multi-functional landscapes: Using exclusion fences to frame feral ungulate management preferences in remote Aboriginal-owned northern Australia	"Ngukurr Aboriginal community (seven different language groups), freshwater billabongs in south eastern Arnhem Land, Northern Territory. 2009 to 2013. "	Interviews with 4 senior traditional owners ? two women and two men. Younger IPLC rangers and researchers conduting interviews and ecological monitoring of IAS and impacts. 	"feral invasive ungulates including buffalo (Bubalus bubalis), horses (Equus caballus), pigs (Sus scrofa).  "	Establishment	Considered Major Pests by government	No data	No data	Economic	IPLC wanting to use IAS as a resource due to their poor socio-economic status - they need the financial income and work opportunities that come from IAS management 	No data	"Feral ungulates caused decline in water lily cover, water quality, riparian vegetation and increased soil damage in freshwater billabongs"	"Some IPLC consider buffalo a bush meat. Some IPLC money from animals being culled, and sold as pet meat. Horses are considered by some IPLC as a pet (want to break them in). "	Messing up important cultural places. 	No data	"Constructing exclusion fencing to protect some cultural sacred sites including freshwater billabongs.
Culling some of the population but not all. 
"	"Differing perspectives on management within the IPLC community - Some traditional owners want the feral animals to be removed, others want compensation if they are to be culled, or they donft want them culled. Others want to make money from the IAS as a resource ? getting money for culling or selling the meat. Fencing was effective at protecting cultural sites (billabongs), but required monitoring by ther rangers. "	"IPLC want to protect cultural assets like bushfoods and billabongs, which are hunting/fishing grounds, and sacred sites, and part of Country. They all recognize the negative impact of feral ungulates on the billabongs and its values, but also IPLC are motivated for gaining a financial return from the animals when they are controlled"	Manage invasive species as a resource 	Culling some feral horses for pet meat (but not all the horses ? leaving some behind). 	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	"IPLC currently involved in developing an Indigenous Protected Area, which through the Australian Government will attract more funding and will require management of threats including IAS. Rangers involved in the decision making of the exclusion fencing project as they were traditional owners for the country on which the fencing was constructed (was chosen by the rangers to be on their country). "	"Cross-cultural work with technical experts, conducting collaborative research about IAS. IPLC want more monitoring and more establishment of fences"	IPLC Rangers wanted to improve community education about IAS and so the exclusion fencing was part of visually demonstrating the impacts to other indigenous people	"Because of the diverging perspectives about the feral animals, and some traditional custodians donft want them culled, then fences are proposed as a temporary form of reducing impacts on cultural important sites such as billabongs.Also traditional custodians want fishing areas fenced off from feral ungulates. "	"Some cause more damage than others, some are a resource."	"Buffalo, pigs and horses dig up the billabongs, make a mess of the soil and billabong. IPLC generally think pigs cause the most damage. "	No data	"Feral buffalo, pig and horses viewed as a cultural threat, however, some IPLC wanted to use them as a resource to make financial gains"	"Ngukurr aboriginals, Arnhem land"																																																																													
	"Bharat B Shrestha, LA Ch. 6 and Zenia Ruiz-Utilla  independent consultant"	"24/8/2021,  21/09/2021 ERC merged"	"Everard et al.-2018, Can control of invasive vegetation improve water and rural livelihood security in Nepal? "	"Community: Local farming communities who also depended on the extraction of forest resources for their livelihood; a rural farming community (Keraghari); a community forest (Tinpiple); and an intensively-cultivated river valley (Panchkhal), all in Kavrepalanchok District. Place:East of Kathmandu in Nepal. Time: Saturday 17th December 2016."	"Representatives of resource-dependent communities (including men and women); Nepali team members (Authors); five rural people (three women and two men). 5-12 persons were interviewed at each of the three sites using semi-structured questionnaire, based in STEEP model"	"Highly problematic invasive alien plants were Lantana (Lantana camara), Crofton weed (Ageratina adenophora) and Siam weed (Chromolaena odorata). Other less problematic invasive alien plants were Bidens pilosa, Galinsoga quadriradiata, Ageratum conyzoides, Ageratum houstonianum, Parthenium hysterophorus, Amaranthus spinosus and Oxalis latifolia. NOte: Pinus roxburghii is also discussed in the article, but this is a native species, and so any summary of Pinus roxburghii as been removed. "	Establishment	"Establishment: There is no information about the specific stage of the alien species in the study; however, concept gwidespreadh and the perception of the local people suggest that at least Lantana camara, Ageratina Adenophora and Chromolaena odorata are established: traditional knowledge and the views of local people revealed four species currently perceived as particularly problematic, including three invasive alien shrubs lantana (Lantana camara), Crofton weed (Ageratina adenophora) and Siam weed (Chromolaena odorata)"	No data	No data	No data	No data	Invasive shrubs:  Positive impacts include soil protection.	"Chromolaena odorata: is host of aphids during dry conditions ""resulting in infestations of other vegetation when it emerges after rains.h (Everard et al. 2018), p 131, Table 2)
Lantana camara: form dense stands in all sites in the field study area "	no data	"Invasive shrubs: ""reducing the provisioning services of forests and associated ecosystems such as supply of forage and non-timber forest products (NTFPs)"""	No data	No data	No data	"There are no activities related with control and management but there are a propose to develop a WfW programme and the motives are:
gIAP management to secure water resources and native vegetation can relieve drudgery associated with more distant and time-consuming foraging, creating more time for productive purposes such as roles in community governanceh (Everard et al., 2018, 130).
gThe IAP management approachc may help inform policy development, including both novel measures and refocusing of existing budgets, compulsions, technical advice or other forms of enabling support for community security and developmenth (Everard et al., 2018, 131).
gVegetation plays significant roles in water balances in all terrestrial environments, so a foundation in common environmental processes is likely to produce multibeneficial outcomes including contributing to water resources. Nature conservation outcomes are likely to result from targeted IAP managementh (Everard et al., 2018, 131).
There is no evidence about the effects of invasive plants on the availability of water in this research, in fact, the authors propose further study to know the role of IAP in this resource in order to elaborate a management programme. Water is a very limited resource, and the scarcity involves more investment of time and energy, in consequence if there is a negative impact from IAP on this resource a management programme will carry benefits to the community."	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	"In the article there is no opinion or decisions from IPLC. Researchers propose translating the WfW approach to Nepal context. The WfW approach has as main objective gaddresses linked policy priorities related to IAP management including water, biodiversity and employabilityc an adapted WfW approach could potentially contribute to water, food, biodiversity, forest, soil, gender equity, community development and security outcomes in Nepal, delivering national and international policy prioritiesh"	No data	"""Direct observation, traditional knowledge and the views of local people revealed four species currently perceived as particularly problematic, including three invasive alien shrubs lantana (Lantana camara), Crofton weed (Ageratina adenophora) and Siam weed (Chromolaena odorata). "	No data	No data	"Farming communities, Kavrepalanchok district, Nepal"																																																																													
	"Betty Rono, Fellow Chpt. 6 and Andy Sheppard, CLA, Ch. 6"	2021/11/7	"Everard, M., D. Khandal, and Y. K. Sahu. 2017. Ecosystem service enhancement for the alleviation of wildlife-human conflicts in the Aravalli Hills, Rajasthan, India. Ecosystem Services 24. Elsevier: 213?222."	"People in the villages of Ranthambhore National Park, Amlidha area and the Banas River,Rajasthan, India, in 2016"	"Gujjars tribal community and village councils (Gram sabha) from villages in Amlidha, Ranthambhore National Park, Amlidha and the Banas River"	Dikhni babul (Prosopis juliflora) arrived and deliberately planted for fodder and timber 	Spread	"Gradually since introduction in 1877, but has become rapid in the recent year. Widespread and dense with a history of deliberate plantings "	"Natural drivers, Resource extraction"	"Natural dispersion and Human activities: displacement and planting for domestic use. Provisional services ? firewood (75% sourced from this) , charcoal, timber, furniture and fencing "	"Politics, governance and institutions, Economic"	"Displacement of people, biodiversity loss and community profiling. Human disturbance and removal of native trees leading to naturalization  "	Increased soil cover and reduces siol errosion	"depletion of water, environmental degradation and disapearance of native species "	On balance still positive benefits 	There are increasing impacts on the access to multiuse landscapes and expected impacts on limiting access (direct and indirect) to water. Also the thorns case tigers to pass closer to the villages  	No data	"There is ecosystem-based approach through management of invasive vegetation to safeguard or regenerate water resources and associated ecosystem health and services has proven successful in dryland zones. Not actively practiced, but authors expect the community are starting to see the problems cased "	"Conflict for resources. Also, the formation of nature reserves has not infrequently been associated with forced displacement of indigenous people as a form of eenvironmental racismf. "	Impact on habitat and distribution of threatened species  (low)	Replace reduced/missing resources 	Changes to soils and water access/availablity	village councils (Gram sabha) do much of the decision making but not yet in terms of management of IAS 	No data	No data	Material and immaterial assets	GQL and NCP advantages outweigh impacts so far in the community	Contrain in water  and soils availability	Resource tenure	"Provisional services ? firewood (75% sourced from this) , charcoal, timber, furniture and fencing "	Dependency on an IAS 	drivers of Huma-wildlife conflict and conflit for resources	village councils (Gram sabha)	Regional authorities also provide support	International refs	Negative impacts likely to increase	Poorly understood	By the authors not the local community 	Poor	Ecosystem services generally declining so likely to increase																																																																														
NG.3	"Elena Tricarico, LA Chpt. 2"	2021/7/17	Fache (2021) Mediation between Indigenous and Non-Indigenous Knowledge Systems: Another Analysis of gTwo-Wayh Conservation in Northern Australia 	"Aboriginal communities, Australia"	"Community of Ngukurr, Norther Territory, Australia, composed by mingirringgi (gownersh), junggayi (gmanagersh), and darlnyin (gbackupsh or gsupervisorsh); conversations, interviews "	"Weeds (e.g. such as Jatropha gossypiifolia, Mimosa pigra and Parkinsonia aculeata) and feral animals (e.g. buffalo Bubalus bubalis, pigs Sus scrofa, horses Equus caballus, donkeys Equus asinus)"	Spread	No data	No data	No data	"Socio-cultural, Economic"	For some Indigenous people some IAS are relevant for economic activities and important as pet or cultural value.	No data	"gWeedsh are presented as one of the most significant environmental threats in the Northern Territory.h (Fache 2021) Also feral animals exert negative ecological impacts, are recognized as a threat for the native fauna and flora. "	"Feral animals can be used as food, pet or important for some economic activities (e.g. tourist safaris) or for the association with Christianity (i.e. donkeys). gCommunity members who believed that buffalo, pigs, horses, and donkeys did damage their country also conveyed positive views of these animals, especially with regard to economic benefits derived from their commercial exploitation. "	No data	No data	"Management gconsists, for instance, in spraying a patch of plants classified as gweedsh with chemicals to eradicate them, or in culling a number of pigs or horses to take blood samples or undertake post-mortem analyses. These activities are generally based on the gtwo-way approachh and therefore involve diverse governmental or non-governmental agencies and non-Indigenous actors alongside Indigenous rangers.h (Fache 2021)"	"The knowledge and definition of weeds are different according to indigenous rangers/nonindigenous people and other community indigenous members. This can affect the understanding of weed management activities and the relationships among different parts of the community. The same happens with feral animals with different perspectives on their impacts and management. ""Indigenous rangers tend to impose their own views about weeds within their community, instead of taking account of local understandings and concerns.."" (Fache 2021) Finally, Indigenous rangers cannot want to be involved in some activities, e.g. monitoring of the impact by feral animals.Limited funds for training program are also a constraint."	For Indigenous rangers and other nonindigenous people to protect native fauna and flora.	Utilisation of invasive species	"Some feral animals are as food, pet or are important for some economic activities (e.g. tourist safaris)."	No data	No data	"Buffalo, pigs, horses, and donkeys can be commercially exploited."	"Material and immaterial assets, Social, spiritual and cultural relations"	Material and immaterial assets: Buffalo and pigs can provide additional foods as they are used for human consumption. 	"Social, spiritual relationships: Within the Indigenous people there are different views on IAS and this can lead to tension among them. "	Cultural institutions	"""The beauty of horses was generally admired, and, like camels in Central Australia, donkeys were associated with Christianity.h (Fache 2021)"	No data	"Tension within the community and towards nonindigenous people can arise for the different views on weeds and feral animals. Thus, gIn the context of the gtwo-way approach,h mediation is focused on integrating Indigenous knowledge applied to natural resource management (or gtraditional ecological knowledgeh) with Western science; each system of knowledge is dynamic rather than monolithic..gSome Indigenous people, however, are reluctant to share knowledge with non-Indigenous people. One major reason behind this reluctance relates to the issue of knowledge repatriation. Another source of concern pertains to questions of legitimacy. In Indigenous Australia, knowledge cannot be transferred to anybody or by anybody. A significant part of Indigenous knowledge is considered to be sacred and secret..The sharing of Indigenous knowledge with non-Indigenous people is therefore fundamentally controlled."" (Face 2021)"	"Aboriginal people recognized the need to manage the species, in collaboration with white people. "	"Aboriginal people recognized the need to collaborate with white people to tackle the species. Indeed, a community effort activity has been carried out to trap the cane toad in 2004."	Aboriginal people retrieve knowledge on the species from their observations: e.g. they were not able to find so easily species once common in the past.	Aboriginal people underlined the necessity to do something and together with white people. 	Aboriginal communities know that cane toad gdoesnft belong to Dhalwangu countryh and considered it as a pest.	The experience of Aboriginal communities is that cane toad presence leads to a reduction in the abundance of native species and even to a disappearance of certain species (e.g. native frogs). 	No data	No data	Aboriginals of Ngukurr																																																																													
	"Esra Per, Fellow Chapter 3"	2021/11/7	"Fenetahun, Y., Xu, X.W. and Wang, Y.D. 2020. Analysis of eco-environmental vulnerability: Implication for bush encroachment and livestock population dynamics of the Teltele rangeland, southern Ethiopia. "	"Pastoral communities in Teltele rangeland (Woreda of Borana zone, Southern, Ethiopia)"	"Pastoralists and other stakeholders in the area. A total of 104 household heads (69 males and 35 females) were questioned. Respondents' socio-demographic profile To determine the amount of pastoralists' awareness of climate change, the types and nature of the impacts, the impact of climate variability on livestock production, and the coping methods used by pastoralists in reaction. "	invasive bush plant species 	Spread	"Because of the abovementioned reasons, the majority of invasive bush species in Teltele rangeland were introduced and spread "	"Climate change, land use change"	". Climate change, namely a decrease in rainfall pattern and a rise in temperature, is one of the major driving forces of vegetation degradation in dry and semi-arid rangeland areas like Teltele. "	"Politics, governance and institutions"	"Politics, governance and institutions: The policies prohibited local communities from eradicating all invasive plant species from rangeland under the pretext of forest deforestation activities, and those who took part in such activities were punished "	No data	The invasive bush plant species is compete with native grass species 	No data	"Government policies, the frequent impact of climate change, the increase of both livestock and human population, and other political issues limit this traditional movement of pastoralists from time to time, resulting in severe degradation of Teltele rangeland when combined with climate change factors. "	No data	The local community attempted to use intervention techniques such as mechanical cutting and others to reduce the impact of bush plant species on the environment 	"Government policies, the frequent impact of climate change, the increase of both livestock and human population, and other political issues limit this traditional movement of pastoralists from time to time, resulting in severe degradation of Teltele rangeland when combined with climate change factors "	No data	"Government policies, Government policies"	"Government policies, the frequent impact of climate change, the increase of both livestock and human population, and other political issues limit this traditional movement of pastoralists from time to time, resulting in severe degradation of Teltele rangeland when combined with climate change factors "	No data	No data	Changes in livestock systems	Health (mental and physical)	No data	"The frequency of drought (El Nio) was a key factor in the rapid encroachment of bush vegetation, resulting in a reduction in the population of Teltele's pastoralist group"		No data	The frequent fluctuation in both temperature and rainfall has also become an emergency cause of insects and other related factors that cause disease and loss of livestock in Teltele district.	direct and indirect impact of climate change	Movement	No data	No data	"there is still a significant gap in terms of climate change; rather, the pastoral community believed that it was due to God's plan and nature's intention to punish us"	No data	Pastoralist livelihoods are expected to be affected by climate change 	They have well-developed mental capabilities for keeping track of livestock inventory 	No data	"Pastoralists, Borana Zone"																																																																													
	"Ellen Ryan-Colton, fellow CH4"	14/07/2019 ERC	Fischer 2007. Cattle in Hawaii Biological and Cultural Exchange	"Native Hawaiian people, Hawaii, USA"	Historical review of historical sources talking about IPLC (but not from IPLC)	"Cattle (Bos spp.). Referring to the feral cattle population (invasive), although there is also a domesticated cattle population on hawaii where the feral cattle have come from. "	Establishment	"Cattle first introduced to Hawaii in 1793, and within a decade rapid increase and established feral population, which was still feral in 1852. No information on more recent trends in feral population of cattle, as they were said to have been well managed in later decades. "	Land-use and Sea-use change	"Cattle were introduced to Hawaii by maritime sailers, but then encouraged them to roam free (not be managed). Also Native Hawaiians were trained up to mamage the cattle by Mexican-Spanish cowboys.  "	"Economic, Socio-cultural, Politics, governance and institutions"	"Economic: Trade - in 1700-1800s Hawaii was on a major shipping route and sailers wanted it to be a reprovsioning station for ships with a good supply of beef. The same when the whling industry started in the Pacific. Then later on trade developed for beef and cattle hides with the Pacific and American west (especially Calilfornian gold rush) , so feral population was worth money. IPLC Native Hawaiians were involved in this economic activity. Socio-cultural: colinalist mindset of people who brought cattle to Hawaii, wanting it to be like Europe. Also colonialism had already brought about large changes to the land for IPLC, and these effects were exacerbated by the cattle impact on their crops.  Also then the government brought Mexican-Spanish cowboys ""vaqueros"" to train the Native Hawaiians in managing the cattle, and a strong cattle culture developed. Also the Native Hawaiian King put a religous taboo on the cattle at first, so cattle couldnt be killed and they rapidly expanded and went feral. Polictics: The Native Hawaiian King put the early taboo on killing the cattle, the government brought in the vaqueros to develop a cattle culture, and the government later changed the land use tenure which created bigger ranches, were cattle were more effectively contained (not going feral as much) and treated as private property. IPLC adapted to these land use changes.   "	No data	"Contributed to deforestation by physical damage and grazing new plant recruits, for a long time. Large vegetation changes. Also caused more soil erosion and dust, and changed weather patterns. Changed the habitat and facilitated invasion by other IAS ? mainly weeds. "	earning money from selling cattle products - beef and hides. 	"Became a nuisance to IPLC, destroying their native crops, and weakening IPLC relationships with the land/cultural practices. disrupting traditional knowledge of weather patterns  "	No data	"in the early days, during the taboo, IPLC built stone walls/fences and tried to domesticate the feral cattle to stop them destroying their crops. IPLC raised the issue with governments. IPLC then tried harvesting cattle for profits after this period of taboo ended. Lasoos, coordinated hunting were some methods by IPLC. Non-IPLC (ranchers fro other countries) were brought in and used dangerous methods like digging pits.Then the Mexican-Spanish cowboys trained the native Hawaiians to become gpaniolesh and these panioles workers did a good job at controlling the feral population"	"Religious taboo gkapuh placed on cattle to not kill them for the first decade. 
Hard to capture alive long horned cows for live export, while IPLC were on foot. But then they learnt new technquies from the vaqeros (mexican-Spanish cowboys). 
"	Destroying IPLC crops and harassing IPLC. Negatively affecting peoples traditional agricultural practices. Also wanted to make money from cattle selling beef and hides	"Manage invasive species as a resource , Utilisation of invasive species, Abandonment"	"During the taboo, IPLC tried to domesticate the feral cattle or had to abandon their crop lands and move to new areas. Then after the taboo finished IPLC tried to capture feral cattle for sale and profit in the maritime trade. But this was hard to catch them live.The IPLC still didnft eat much beef. Just traded them. Then the Mexican-spainish cowboys gvaquerosh trained up the native Hawaiians in how to catch wild cattle and aslo manage them (in ranch style situations). There was a gradual shift to ranches and domestication."	IPLC Trained up to catch wild cattle and then to become ranchers. 	No data	A large trading poeration developed selling beef or hides from feral cattle	"Health (mental and physical), Material and immaterial assets"	" IPLC adapted and trained up to catch wild cattle and domesticate them in ranches, both of which saw IPLC involved in the trade of beef and hides and economic activity. 
"	IPLC feeling in despair and suffering due to impacts of cattle on their croplands.	Cultural institutions	"Native Hawaiians have adopted the cattle into their cultural identity, especially the ""cowboy"" aspect"	No data	"As land use tensure changed to private property, conflict developed between landowners over feral cattle, but these were not necceasrily IPLC. "	"IPLC were raising issue with government in the early days through petitions, trying to be involved in the descion-making. "	IPLC raising issue with government in the early days through petitions. Learnt from the Mexican-Spanish vaqueros and adpoted their cowboy culture. 	"Mexican-Spanish ranchers/cowboys were brough over to train up Native Hawaiians - With the training of paniolos, Native Hawaiians gained their own cultural expertise in handling the animals."	No data	No data	No data	No data	"Yes some incorporation of cattle into Native Hawaiian economies and conceptual framework, ending up with a strong cattle culture. Early threat to cultural practices through damage to croplands, not sure if this is still the case, as IPLC have adapted to cattle. There are now Hawaiian names for much of the equipment used for cattle work (bullock hunting and ranching). gBilly Berginfs recent history of the Parker Ranch includes extensive descriptions of the Hawaiian names for equipment and terminology for the methods derived from vaqueros, such as ku?peee for hog-tie and alakaei for leading a bullock.h (Fischer 2007 pg 371)"	Hawaiian natives																																																																													
	"Esra Per, Fellow Chapter 3"	2021/11/7	"Gautam, M.R., Chief, K. and Smith, W.J. 2013. Climate change in arid lands and Native American socioeconomic vulnerability: the case of the Pyramid Lake Paiute Tribe. "	"the Pyramid Lake Paiute Tribe (PLPT), February 2010 "	"Households, environmental managers and tribal council. This study used descriptive methods, including qualitative data (PLPT perception and observation) collected at the household and organizational levels. 687 households received questionnaires with pre-stamped return envelopes."	"Quagga mussel, invasive and noxious weeds, insect pests, and bullfrogs"	Spread	"Invasive species records such as noxious plants, bug pests, and bullfrogs are becoming more common "	Climate change	"Climate change tends to provide PLPT with a number of challenges, including implications on the watershed, rangeland, lake, and ecosystem services "	Economic	"External socioeconomic issues such as non-climatic stressors (e.g., legal, water sharing, population growth, and urbanization on tribal land) obviously impact biophysical vulnerability to climate change on tribal land, which can amplify climatic impacts "	No data	Increased invasive and noxious plants can have an impact on increased flooding 	No data	"Increased invasive and noxious plants can have an influence on agriculture, putting pressure on marginal farmers "	No data	"In the following of the Quagga Mussel invasion in Rye Patch and Lahontan Reservoirs, PLPT started a proactive strategy to monitoring invasive species in Pyramid Lake. "	"PLPT has undertaken a long and successful legal battle to obtain water rights and storage for fisheries, which will be supported by TROA reservoir operating policies if and when they are approved by the courts "	No data	No data	No data	"Many tribe members migrate for work because of limited economic possibilities, and the study indicates that 25% of tribal membersf labor off-reservation. "	"In response to worries about dwindling water supplies, the Comprehensive Resource Management Plan (CRMP) created a water conservation plan including price incentives for water conservation and the installation of water meters "	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	There was a clear willingness and desire among tribal leaders to include climate change into their respective programs 	PLPT's high resource management potential is demonstrated by its increased awareness and continued initiatives in invasive species reduction in partnership with other agencies 	They have monitoring program	"PLPT, like many other tribes, would benefit from additional federal support for tribal climate change programs, and its resilience would be increased by chosen sustainable economic development that is attentive to the tribe's relatively unique circumstances"	"The tribe was also concerned about the rising presence of invasive species like as noxious weeds, bug pests, and bullfrogs"	"The susceptibility of PLPT to climate change is linked to its cultural and economic reliance on Pyramid Lake, whereas external socioeconomic factors impair adaptation capability and exacerbate possible impacts "	"PLPT's adaptive capacity to climate change is strengthened by sustainability-based values, technical capacity for natural resource management, proactive initiatives for invasive species control, strong external scientific networks, and a remarkable awareness of climate change, despite limited economic opportunities and dwindling federal support "	"The conservation of the Pyramid Lake ecosystem is vitally essential to the PLPT for economic, spiritual, and cultural reasons, as evidenced by the fact that cui-ui, the lake, and people are the three core components of tribal identity "	"Paiute Tribe, Pyramid Lake"																																																																													
	"Sebataolo Rahlao, CLA Chpt. 2"	27/09/2021	"Goftishu et al, 2017. Cereal stem borer management practices in subsistence farms of eastern Ethiopia "	"Small holder farmers, Ethiopia, 2014"	Small holder subsistence farmers from three associations at different regions.	"Chilo partellus, Busseola fusca, Sesamia calamistis"	"Spread, Introduction "	farmers using traditional methods to prevent and avoid pests over the years.	"IAS, IAS"	"Destruction of maize crops by different species of stem borers, insect pests"	Socio-cultural	"no data, Poverty, lack of knowledge, lack of funds "	no data	no data	no data	"Stock reduction, diseases"	no data	no data	"Lack of capital, unavailability, and
lack of knowledge."	Subsistence and food security ? home consumption needs	"no data, no data, no data"	no data	no data	no data	no data	"No data, No data, Social, spiritual and cultural relations, Social, spiritual and cultural relations, Social, spiritual and cultural relations"	Cultural practices to manage stem borers	no data	no data	no data	no data	no data	Based on indigenous knowledge of these farmers in Ethiopia	no data	"Research, local knowledge and experiences "	"...support of adequate
extension services is required to create awareness among farmers about the principles and practices of cultural management methods to minimize the damage
caused by stem borers. need on the part of government and relevant stakeholders to design adequate stem borer management strategies that are founded on subsistence farmersf needs and priorities by taking their crop production
practices into account"	no data	no data	no data	no data																																																																														
	"Tatsiana Lipinskaya, Fellow, Chpt1"	13/07/2021 TL	"Gratani et al., 2011 - Is Validation of Indigenous Ecological Knowledge a Disrespectful Process? A Case Study of Traditional Fishing Poisons and Invasive Fish Management from the Wet Tropics, Australia"	" Malanbarra Yidinji clan in the Wet Tropics World Heritage Area of Queensland, Australia"	"elders from the Malanbarra Yidinji clan, traditional owners of the Mulgrave River valley. Culturally appropriate coresearch framework designed for the region. The male elders were appointed by the Malanbarra Yidinji community as their representatives because of their expertise in fishing poisons, and they conferred with the community throughout the study. The elders provided their free and prior informed consent for all phases of the project. Experiment."	2  species of tilapia - Tilapia mariae and Oreochromis mossambicus	Establishment	"In Australia two species of tilapia, Tilapia mariae and Oreochromis mossambicus, have been introduced as ornamental species, and they are established in Queensland (Webb 2003, Lintermans 2004) where they are listed as noxious species, and considerable resources are devoted to managing their spread (Queensland Fisheries Service 2001). Tilapia mariae has established self-sustaining populations in the Mulgrave River"	Land-use and Sea-use change	introduced as ornamental species	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	Piscicides and mechanical removal are methods adopted by natural resource management agencies for controlling tilapia in Queensland	"use of rotenone is controversial because of its side effects on nontarget species and the toxicity of solvents used in its preparation (Ling 2002). Hence, indigenous fishing poisons are a possible alternative source of environmentally friendly bioactive molecules"	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	"framework for knowledge validation between scientific knowledge and ILK knowledge; traditional fishing poisons as a possible alternative tool for their control 
"	distinguish	No data	No data	No data																																																																														
	"Betty Rono, Fellow Chpt. 6"	2021/7/7	"Grenz, J. B. 2020. Healing the Land by Reclaiming an Indigenous Ecology:  A journey exploring the application of the Indigenous worldview to invasion biology and ecology. University of British Columbia."	"Cowichan Tribes of Yefyumnuts- now referred to as Duncan, British Columbia"	6 elders and knowledge holders from the Cowichan Tribe and Kwakwakafwakw 	"Blackberries (The Himalayan and Evergreen), water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis), Knotweed, Scotch Broom and Daphne Laurel."	Spread	No data	Land-use and Sea-use change	"Due to colonisation, locals do not have ful controll over their land and actions on it.  "	"Science, technology, and knowledge"	"Was initially controlled by fire and other ancient methods, but outside promotion of economic use of other methods and reduced local controls, increase invasives' spread. Where where control and eradication is not done well, there are patches that remain and propergate the spread. Food production and harvesting has generally declined due to the weed and other livelihood activities. Outside promotion of technological change and economic promise increased pressure to put up control and management measures."	No data	Decline in other flowering sps. Which is risky for pollination	Monetary benefits	No data	New methodologies are developing for control	"management is more inclusive as locals, scientists and settlers have their say now"	"due to colonisation, locals did not have full control of their land hence had little contribution towards management and control of IAS"	Food security and healing of Land	Changes in cropping systems	"People (settlers, scientists and locals), realise the importance to save the land from invasives to ensure food security in future"	No data	No data	No data	Freedom of choice or action	Income	No data	Settlement / land use	Income from berries 	Harvesting generally declined	colonial rule-science and local knowledge	inclusion of locals	scientists and governments as well as NGOs and non-profit organizations	"Local experimentation and learning regarding weed control and management, as well as impacts on food security. Knowledge differs depending on either settlers, famers or local communities"	No data	No data	No data	No data	Settlers accep local knowledge and practices. 	Cowichan and Kwakwaka'wakw tribes																																																																													
	"Betty Rono, Fellow Chpt. 6"	2021/12/7	"Grice, A. C., J. Cassady, and D. M. Nicholas. 2012. Indigenous and non]Indigenous knowledge and values combine to support management of Nywaigi lands in the Queensland coastal tropics. Ecological Management & Restoration 13. Wiley Online Library: 93?97."	Nywaigi people and biophysical scientists	No data	Olive Hymenachne (Hymenachne amplexicaulis) 	Introduction 	No data	IAS	Development	Economic	Displacement and land use change to pave way for developments. 	"Fish and freshwater turtles, had become scarce if not altogether absent as a result of degradation of the wetland"	Species decline	No data	cultural disconect 	New strategies including ILK are developed	"The MACB has worked to develop effective and productive working relationships with relevant organisations.Mungalla-Nywaigi people seek to restore links to their country that were disrupted by agricultural, pastoral and physical well-being."	displacement caused land relation to be costrained. local authorities are developing effective and productive working relationships with relevant organisations.	restoration of lost biodiversity	Conserve / protect threatened species	"because of species decline and changing Ecosysten services and products, the community opt for restoration "	No data	several organisations have pulled up to facilitate NRM capacity building for the local communities	No data	"Social, spiritual and cultural relations"	No data	Species decline in the wetlands 	Social stratification	local indigigenous people have a voice and are taking part in managenet of NRM	development caused displacement andbiodiversity loss 	rights and land entitlement 	No data	"Scientists, non-profit organisations, international organization and governments have joined hands to offer capacity building in NRM for locals "	No data	"At Mungalla, Indigenous and non-Indigenous experiences are being combined to devise and apply natural resource management strategies. Scientific knowledge of wetland systems, in particular, has been applied by Nywaigi people to facilitate restoration of valued wetlands, reconnection with their country and building land management capacity."	No data	No data	No data	No data	Nywaigi aboriginals																																																																													
PP.1	"Patricia Howard, LA Chpt. 6"	01/06/2019 PH	"Hall, 2009. Cultural Disturbances and Local Ecological Knowledge Mediate Cattail (Typha domingensis) Invasion in Lake Patzcuaro, Mexico"	"Pur?pecha indigenous people, Lake P?tzcuaro, Mexico."	33 indigenous plant harvesters and 11 other knowledgeable people	"Typha domingensis, southern cattail. Can spread prolifically by rhizomes after seedlings establish in disturbed vegetation. Thrives in eutrophic conditions and artificially stabilized hydroperiods. "	Spread	No data	"Resource extraction, Pollution, Land-use and Sea-use change, Biodiversity loss"	"Locals said due to a decline in lake water level, sewage discharges, grazing decline. Harvesters said native fish suffered from declines in submersed aquatic vegetation, mediated by herbivory from introduced Cyprinus or by Typhafs dominance."	Economic	"Was initially controlled, but outside promotion of economic use of Typha for woven prodcuts increased demand for it and reduced local controls, increasing Typha spread. Where Typha is cut above water, Schoenoplectus persists in deep water. Harvesting has generally declined due to emigration, difficulty/low status of work, lack of of canoes, other livelihood activities, purchase of raw materials. Outside promotion of technological change increased demand for Typha."	No data	No data	No data 	No data	No data	No data	No data 	No data	Conserve / protect threatened species	People plant Scoenoplectus clones to increase abundance of resource threatened by Typha	"Own labour for control, management of useful invasive, for production of woven materials"	No data	No data 	Material and immaterial assets	Typha provides materials for enterprises and income	Schoenoplectus users face shortages of raw material	Cultural institutions	Higher income from Typha products	"Harvesting has generally declined due to lack of of canoes, cost of purchase of raw material."	Some Schoenoplectus users are unhappy that Typha is not controlled	"gThe need to remove E. ?oribundus was identi?ed during participatory workshops, where local livestock owners strongly motivated for a programme to remove the species to eopen up the grassf for their livestock. In line with DEATfs community-based natural resource management guidelines (DEAT, 2003), this local knowledge was welcomed.h Livestock owning men have more resources and are more powerful and dominate meetings and workshops. Women and poor don't participate actively in workshops, probably to their detriment."	"gcsocial responsibility projects were introduced at Macubeni by the Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism to (i) halt the degradation processes and erosion and improve agricultural production, (ii) do so in a labour intensive manner to provide poverty alleviation through cash payment for labour and (iii) develop the capacity of local institutions to manage the land and livestock numbers in a more sustainable fashion into the future (DEAT, 2004). In this way, almost US$1 million was allocated to Macubeni for ecosystem repair and employmentcA large component of the rehabilitation programme (started in 2005) was to clear 1500 ha invaded by E. ?oribundus, which was deemed to be reducing the grazing capacityh creation "	"No critical detailed assessment of extent or intensity of degradation caused by invasion, or its causes or consequences for landscape dynamics and livelihoods."	"gWithin the context of multiple social needs and perspectives a thorough ecological assessment is required before external agencies embark on long-term and costly rehabilitation efforts which also impact on local social dynamics. In this instance, the ecological assessment suggests that one component of the rehabilitation of the degraded lands at Macubeni, namely the removal of E. ?oribundus, requires further considerationh "	Livestock-owning men think it reduces grazing resources; for women it is an important asset.	"No data other than the survey information provided under 'impacts', which comes from informants."	No data	"Invasive has been fully incorporated as an important economic, livelihood and cultural resource especially for women and the poor after most woody species have been lost. Xhosa women are traditionally in charge of managing woody resources."	"Purepecha people, Lake Patzcuaro"																																																																													
AP.5	"Romina Fernandez, Fellow Chpt.4"	17/06/2021 RF	"Haregeweyn et al. 2013-Analysis of the invasion rate, impacts and control measures of Prosopis juliflora: a case study of Amibara District, Eastern Ethiopia "	"Afar community. Amibara District, Afar Regional State, Eastern Ethiopia"	"""The primary data were collected from structured interviews, focus group discussions, key informant interviews, and field surveyshchThere were also discussions with the management committee of the Charcoal Makers and Pod Collectors cooperatives""/Satellite image analysis,field work, interviews with pastoralists, agropastoralist and charcoal makers and discussions with focus groups. "	Prosopis juliflora	spread	"gThis satellite image-based analysis for P. juliflora also provides indirect evidence that the tree was introduced in the period 1973?1987h c""gP. juliflora in particular has become more threatening in recent years as the mechanism of expansion has begun to take different forms, and by 2020, approximately 30.89 % of the study area will be covered by P. juliflora"""	Land-use and Sea-use change	P. juliflora was introduced to control desertification and the high dust wind in the area	No data	No data	No data	""" 100 % of the pastoralists, 96.7 % of the agropastoralists, and 40 % of the charcoal makers agreed on the negative impacts of P. juliflora invasion on the biodiversity of the district. Several plant species have been endangered in areas invaded by P. juliflora and many useful grass species that were once found in Amibara District, including Durfu (Chrysopogon plumulosus Hochst) and Isisu [Cymbopogon schoenanthus (L.) Spreng], are now on the verge of extinction"""	"""the respondents noted some positive impacts of P. juliflora, primarily in relation to land rehabilitation. ""...""Among the identified existing and potential contributions of P. juliflora to their livelihoods are its use as fuel wood, animal fodder, and construction materials"""	" P. juliflora affect human health, livestock health, the access to feed or move for several wild animals, resource use and patterns of mobility of the pastoralists"	No data	"""The measures that have been implemented primarily by individual community members with limited or no external support include clear cutting, burning, and the uprooting of young seedlings. The cooperatives were engaged in managing P. juliflora by maximizing the utilization of this species. The clearing of P. juliflora using bulldozers and/or human labor and the burning of P. juliflora in farmlands, roadsides, and irrigation and drainage canals have been completed by the ABA"""	" gIn some localities, the communities established local bylaws to compel members of the community to uproot the seedlings wherever they occur; however, these efforts were found to be unsuccessful primarily because the bylaws have no legal or political recognition and, thus, have no power to levy sanctions on the community members. Moreover, there is a lack of clear working guidelines and strategies from the local or central governments that precludes the effective implementation and evaluation of these measuresh / gCutting of P. juliflora means hoeing it or making it aggressive and inviting it to produce more shoots instead of eradicating ith
 gThe minimization of P. juliflora dispersion through the collection and crushing of pods by organized cooperatives was unsuccessfulh 
 gThe use of bulldozers became expensive to the authority; as a result, the authority switched to using human labor ""
"	"gOne hundred percent of the pastoralists and agropastoralists called for the complete eradication of P. juliflorahcgWe know the benefits and hazardous problems of P. juliflora. Our people are exclusively dependent on animals, and the plant suppresses the growth of other plants, which our animals live on. As a result, we lost a significant number of our cattle"" In contrast, 100 % of charcoal makers did not want P. juliflora to be eradicated because their livelihood is completely dependent on its products in the form of charcoal production"	"Utilisation of invasive species, Abandonment, Changes in livestock systems"	"Utilisation of invasive species: gyet only the charcoal makers appreciated its potential for sustainable livelihood development"" Abandonment: ""the community complained of the problem of thorns while collecting pods in areas where P. juliflora formed impenetrable thickets. As a result, those cooperative members who were engaged in pod collection and crushing abandoned the project.              Changes in livestock systems: gAll of the respondents in the three occupation groups believed that the invasion of P. juliflora has a variety of negative impacts on livestock production, such as causing the loss of wild animals and grazing land and creating health risks"""	"""As a result of the significant loss of prime fertile grazing land following the invasion of P. juliflora, the rotational grazing , has been significantly alteredh  ""Some pastoralists have chosen alternative means of securing their livelihoods by transforming their farming system to small-scale farming through the clearing of areas invaded by P. juliflora, which open up opportunities to small-scale management of P. juliflora invasion"""	"""The authority has been clearing P. juliflora regularly over 36-km lengths of irrigation and drainage canals using bulldozers (1995?2002) at a cost of Ethiopian Birr (ETB) 188,100 per year in 2002. The use of bulldozers became expensive to the authority; as a result, the authority switched to using human labor (2002 to present), which helped reduce the cost to ETB 54,000 per year in 2008"""	"gP. juliflora invasion is also directly responsible for the alterations of resource use and patterns of mobility of the pastoralists, the livestock are now confined to marginal grazing areas. This overstocking, according to the respondents, leads to overgrazing, which in turn causes land degradation, the loss of palatable perennial grasses in favor of annual and less palatable species, seed bank disturbance, the retardation or elimination of the natural regeneration of native vegetation, compaction of soil, and loss of productivity of the land, all of which lead to the eventual decline in the capacity of the range land to support livestockhch Local elders indicated that the number of cattle killed by P. juliflora is larger than the number of cattle killed by droughth. "	"Material and immaterial assets, safety and security, Health (mental and physical), Freedom of choice or action"	material and immaterial assets: The species is used for charcoal production	"Safety and security:  gDense thickets of P. juliflora also provide comfortable shelter for populations of predators which kill both livestock and warthogs, damage crops, and attack the local communityh Health (mental and physical): gThe expansion of P. juliflora has brought associated health problems to the local communityh 
Freedom of choice or action/material and immaterial assets: ""the community complained of the problem of thorns while collecting pods in areas where P. juliflora formed impenetrable thickets. As a result, those cooperative members who were engaged in pod collection and crushing abandoned the project and switched to charcoal marketingh                P. juliflora invasion egative impacts on livestock production"	Settlements / land-use	No data	"Settlement / land use: ""the livestock are now confined to marginal grazing areas"""	"""The shrinkage of pasture land has also been cited as a major cause of ever increasing intra- and intertribal conflicts"""	"""from the Afarians perspective, we urge all the concerned bodies to help us in the complete eradication of P. juliflora from our land.""
 ""it is widely perceived that proper management of the species may improve its characteristics and reduce its negative impacts"" 
"	gtwo types of local cooperatives have been established with the help of FARMAfrica. The first cooperative targeted the clearing and digging out of the roots of mature treeshch The objective of the second cooperative was to minimize the dispersion of P. juliflora seeds through pod collection and crushing for animal feed purposes with a crushing machine and training supplied by FARM-Africah  	No data	"One hundred percent of the pastoralists and agropastoralists called for the complete eradication of P. juliflora because they believed that, under the current management system, the disadvantages of the tree outweigh the advantages"	"gWe know the benefits and hazardous problems of P. juliflora. Our people are exclusively dependent on animals, and the plant suppresses the growth of other plants, which our animals live on. As a result, we lost a significant number of our cattleh "	"gThe majority of the survey respondents identified negative impacts of P. juliflora on their livelihoods, yet only the charcoal makers appreciated its potential for sustainable livelihood development.  the respondents noted some positive impacts of P. juliflora, primarily in relation to land rehabilitationhchMost respondents makers agreed on the negative impacts of P. juliflora invasion on the biodiversity of the districthch All of the respondents believed that the invasion of P. juliflora has a variety of negative impacts on livestock production"""	gOne hundred percent of the pastoralists and agropastoralists and 66.7 % of the charcoal makers believed livestock droppings to be the main dispersal agent for P. juliflora seeds 	"""If timely intervention is not taken, P. juliflora has the potential to eliminate pastoralism from the district in the near futureh / gthe charcoal makers appreciated its potential for sustainable livelihood developmenth"	"Afar pastoralists, Amibara"																																																																													
	"Ellen Ryan-Colton, fellow CH4 and Zenia Ruiz-Utilla  independent consultant"	"20/8/2021, ERC merged"	Head and Atchinson 2015. Entangled Invasive Lives: Indigenous Invasive Plant Management in Northern Australia 	"Indigenous ranger groups across northern Australia (Queensland, Northern Territory and Western Australia).  2011-2013."	"30 Semi-structured interviews, 2011-2013, with 42 indigenous and non-indigenous people involved in weed management, including ranger groups. Also participant observations in two weed workshops and review of literature. "	"Invasive alien plants in general (referred to as weeds)- including Mimosa pigra, Xanthium pungens, Jatropha gossypiifolia, Cryptostegia grandiflora"	"Establishment, Introduction "	"Introduction: Invasions since early 20th century in northern Australia.  eg.  gbotanic gardens have always been one of the major invasion pathwaysc Mimosa pigra probably entered the Northern Territory as a specimen in the Darwin Botanic gardens in the 1890s (Miller and Lonsdale 1987)h (Head and Atchinson, 2015, 174). Establishment: Xanthium pungens has established since 1974 in the Kimberley area. Some indigenous lands are less infested with weeds than other land tenures - due to their remoteness,, lack of roads and access tracks, and lower rates of visiting country now (IPLC now in communities), and not a history of past use as patoral stations. "	Land-use and Sea-use change	Land use change: Botanic gardens escapees and trading of weed seeds in early 20th century by non-indigenous gardeners/workers. 	"Socio-cultural, Economic, Politics, governance and institutions"	"Socio-cultural: Colonial legacy ? lead to indtroductions of invasive plants, changes in land tenure and dispossession and disadvatgae of IPLC, which has influenced their capacity for response.  Now land tenure is improving for IPLC but remains complex. Economic: IPLC have less resources than non-IPLC landowners (e.g. pastoralists) to respond. Governance/Institutions: Lack of cross-cultural experience within institutions, also, lots of organisationsla processes involved in modern NRM work which can be hard to navigate for IPLC. "	no data	"Xanthium pungens - negative: gforms especially dense thickets along watercoursesh (Head and Atchinson, 2015, 174)."	no data	IPLC canft use areas taken over by weeds for fishing due to poor water quality and blocking physical access	"Quarantine area (fences, gates, fines) established to prevent spread of Xanthium pungens further south ? established by government (non-IPLC). . "	"The default option for weed management in northern Australia is chemical spraying. Some weeds are controleld with aerial burning. An example - Xanthium pungens had control programs (by IPLC and non-IPLC) in the 1990s in the Kimberley region, but this was just short-term or small scale and then the plant kept spreading. Quarantine strategies were used to prevent it spreading further south. "	"Constraints: Complex land tenures - sometimes unclear whofs responsibility it is to control weeds on IPLC lands. Variable socio-economic capacity to undertake management work. Identified as one of the main barriers, but also could be lack of cross-cultural experience within NRM organisations of the dominant system. 
Capacity issues include ? IPLC have less resources than other non-IPLC landowners, gender inequity in ranger work, small group size, people moving away, other family and cultural commitments, lack of basic housing. Weeds are not the main priority for Indigenous traditional owners ? it is protecting cultural sites. Funding pulled from programs and state government dictated priorities
Remote areas, monsoonal climate, so IPLC management is challenging particularly in the wet season and has higher logistical costs. "" it's the ability to get there and do it, and itfs just too big, and itfs too far awaycItfs too hard to get to....you struggle to get water to mix your chemicals with, and all that.""(Head and Atchinson, 2015, 176).Dipsersal of weeds via water down catchments onto different land tenures. 
Training requirements for weed work interrupts actual on-ground work of weed spraying . Effectiveness: sometimes management doesnt work e.g. Effectiveness: there was a fair bit of money thrown into controlling noogoora burr up here and it finished somewhere in the mid ninety period and if you talk to people who were doing the work, because it was year after year after year after year, you talk to the people they actually had their foot on the throat of the thing and it was just a bit of a cleanup job. The state government pulled the funding on it and said itfs no longer a priority; itfs now back or worse than what it was prior to thath (Head and Atchinson, 2015, 175).
"	"IPLC donft want to be involved with chemicals.
Government sets the weed priorities.
IPLC have motivations to glook after countryh as part of their cultural responsibilities, so some of IPLC motivations for weed work is to access country. Also it is enjoyable, out of the office. 
"	"no data, no data"	no data	"IPLC communities support indigenous ranger programs to manage weeds, with IPLC community members making up the labour force. There is gender inequity - e.g. Women are not involved as much in the invasive species management: gA further issue is gender; women represent only about 10 per cent of people engaged in Working on Country activities nationally (Duff 2012, p. 26; see also CSIRO 2012)h (Head and Atchinson, 2015, 178)."	no data	no data	"Social, spiritual and cultural relations, Health (mental and physical), Freedom of choice or action"	"Some positive well-being and opportunity outcomes for IPLC being involved in the weed management programs -  including employment, training, engaging young people, visiting country. Some personal enjoyment results from this work. "	"Loss of access to country due to Quarantine area being established with fences, gates and fines, which prevented IPLC accessing sites, especially riparian zones. Long-term negative health impacts for IPLC involved in the chemical spraying program of Xanthium pungens, including cancer and death. Now IPLC wary and unwlilling to do chemical sparying work. e.g. gDad used to come home dripping with that poison (used for Ngoorburr). Me and Mum used to wash all his clothes, we were directly exposed to it. He had a big cancer on his shoulder when he diedh (Head and Atchinson, 2015, 175). for other quotes see the word template from Zenia"	Settlement / land use	Weed work allows access to remote country for the community	no data	Conflict between neighbours [not necessarily IPLC] about weeds coming from upstream in the catchment to downstream. 	"State governments were dictating weed priorities and programmes, and then resposibility falls to land owners. Some uncertainty about responsibility on indigenous lands. 
Indigenous concerns about quarantine area were not listened to. 
IPLC included in stakeholder meetings and governance structures about weeds, but they can be frustrated by bureaucratic nature of these groups. 
"	"Frustrated by burecreatiuc nature of weed governance groups IPLC are involved with, even though they appreciate being involved. 
Conflict between neighbours [not necessarily indigenous] about weeds coming from upstream in the catchment to downstream. Or IPLC working together with neighbours for on-ground management (e.g. working with mining companies, pastoralists)  and in cross-cultural teams for weed work, with positive outcomes (employment, career development etc). 

"	"Government driven priorities. Government run weed workshops. Formal weed management training (chemicals, plant ID, Safety). "	"Authors' perspective: gIIPM provides a framing that can usefully be attended to as it evolves and moves in an interplay of local and larger scales. IIPM has the potential to help address the significant management challenges of novel ecologies with strategies that draw on deep indigenous knowledge of country and how it changes, and with different ways of thinking about nature and environmental issuesh (Head and Atchinson, 2015, 179)."	"Authors' perspective drawing from the literature (not IPLC first person): gWithin indigenous ontologies the scientific categories of enativef and enon-nativef species do not necessarily make sense (Howitt and Suchet-Pearson 2006). A number of different studies have shown that in some circumstances indigenous communities welcome non- native species (Rose 1995; Trigger 2008)h (Head and Atchinson, 2015, 172).
However, this perception can change and is different according to a diverse factor including such related with perception of risk or the uses that people give to those species."	"Authors' perspective drawing from the literature (not IPLC first person): gIndigenous perceptions vary according to a range of factors, including increasing weed visibility over the last twenty years (Gardener 2005, p. 20). Species which impede access to hunting and fishing sites are not liked; nor are those with thorns and burrs as many Aboriginal people do not wear shoes. Some widespread taxa which are not harmful to people are not perceived as a problem, such as hyptis. Other species are prized because they provide edible fruit (chinee apple, Ziziphus mauritiana)h (Head and Atchinson, 2015, 172)."	no data	no data	"Aboriginals - Queensland, Northern Territory, Western Australia"																																																																													
	"Patricia Howard, LA Chpt. 6"	2021/7/1	"Jagoret et al., 2012. Afforestation of savannah with cocoa agroforestry systems: A small-farmer innovation in central Cameroon"	"Mainly indigenous Yambassa. 2004 - 157 cocoa plantations on grasslands & 182 cocoa  in gallery forests; sub-sample of 47 grassland cocoa plantations. Central Cameroon forest?savannah interface, 4 villages in Bokito District"	339 cocoa plantations of 282 farmers -  interviewed each. Interviewed village heads and elders about the history of cocoa growing in the region 	"Imperata cylindrica perinneal grass from Asia, ubiquitious in the humid tropics of West Africa. "	Spread	"Bokito is a patchwork of gallery forests in cocoa agroforestry systems and grasslands dominated by Imperata. 46.3 % of plantations  in grasslands; rest in gallery forests. Oldest grassland  plantations on  planted in the 1st half of the 20th C. [doesn't say if these were Imperata dominated, or if it was purposefully introduced]. Dominates grasslands."	"Natural drivers, IAS"	"Natural drivers: water deficit, irregular rainfall distrubution, IAS -  Imperata represents a major farming constraint as it regenerates when fields insufficiently maintained &  cover is sparse. Major constraint for all crops due to competition for water and nutrients "	"Economic, Socio-cultural, Science, technology, and knowledge"	"Economic: Cocoa is a major cause of deforestation in Africa as trees are often planted in newly cleared forest. Conversion of Imperata grasslands to cocoa agroforestry is economically viable; Science, knowledge: Grasslands are theoretically unable to fulfil cocoafs requirements due to insufficient and variable rainfall and low soil organic matter. Study area is far north of the ideal cocoa growing region. Planting cocoa agroforestry systems on Imperata grasslands in central Cameroon contradicts opinions of cocoa experts. Based entirely on ILK - strategies for establishing cocoa agroforestry systems clears Imperata."	No data	No data	No data 	Imperata represents a major farming constraint as regenerates when fields  insufficiently maintained &  cover is sparse. Major constraint for all crops due to competition for water and nutrients and must be controlled before establishing cocoa plantations	Conversion of imperata dominated cropland to agroforestry systems prevents reinvasion.	"For 2-3 years after planting cocoa, plots  manually weeded until canopy forms. Plots manually weeded until canopy is closed. Plots are manually deep tilled and Imperata is uprooted. In one system, Oil palm planted at high density, generating dense cover in 4-5 years, then felled and cocoa planted with fruit trees and some native trees preserved. In a second system, successive short-cycle annual crops are sewn for 2?3 years. Cocoa is planted together with fruit trees and oil palms and some native trees preserved, young trees are associated with annual crops for another 2-3 years. Forest trees are preserved for soil fertility. With no organic or chemical  fertilisers, topsoil organic matter grew  w/  plantation age as improves soil biological processes"	"First grassland strategies for establishing cocoa agroforestry systems based on oil palm establishment - Imperata cleared within 8-10 years. Second grassland strategy based on annual crop establishment - Imperata cleared within 4-5 years. Efficient management of  tree stands to maintain optimal shade  for Imperata control and cocoa growth show it is possible to overcome Imperata, water deficit and irregular rainfall distribution, and poor soil fertility"	"Suppress Imperata, improve crop yields, produce valuable trees by converting to agroforestry. Improve socio-economic conditions by through the production of cocoa many other valuable crops and trees; increase tree species abundance."	"Changes in cropping systems, Changes in livestock systems, Changes in tree / forest systems"	"Trees: 4,846 trees of 67 species inventoried in plantations, fruit = 48%; oil palm 29%, forest trees 24%. Tree type proportions changed over time, balanced in old plantations; Cropping systems: Cropping systems - Oil palm generates dense cover, then felled and cocoa planted with fruit; fallow system apparently eliminated; second system:  annual crops; then cocoa, fruit trees & oil palms associated with crops; fallow system apparently eliminated."	No data.	No data	"Cocoa plantations intercropped with oil palm and other valuable trees - 4,846 trees of 67 species inventoried in plantations, fruit = 48%; oil palm 29%, forest trees 24%.  Marketable cocoa yield  similar to gallery forest plantations & and close to yields in forest areas in C and S Cameroon. Substantially increased income from market-oriented production, including of industrial crops such as oil palm."	No data	No data 	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	"Most control is where individuals control land use and the benefits that their efforts generate. The jointly used communal grazing areas have seen very few control attemptsc local authorities have been unable to mobilise significant control operations on their own. Institutions (property rights, customary authorities, formal policies) and the incentives that they produce limit the range and effectiveness of possible responses."	"Conflict with outsiders (see 'Conflict'), outsiders dominate the charcoal trade, government policies restrict charcoal production"	"Government, FAO (from introduction of invasive); otherwise seems to be all ILK"	A key challenge for future control efforts will be strengthening the institutions that facilitate collective and individual action for rangeland management	"Initially positive, turning to negative."	"The primary livelihood options of farming and livestock keeping are threatened by the unchecked expansion of the invasive alien species. Individualsf overall perceptions of P. juliflora are influenced by their assessment of present and future costs and benefits. The empirical results in this paper show considerable differences in the distribution of benefits and costs between areas, between people engaged in different occupations, and between men and womenNonetheless, there is near unanimous support for eradication of the species from the area. "	increase of P. juliflora on individual land was attributed to difficulties in controlling the spread of the trees and dispersal of seed by both livestock and water. Livestock were identified as an important dispersal agent for P. juliflora seeds because they eat the seed pods and drop the seeds with their manure. 	"the more commercially oriented residents have not benefited greatly from the sale of P. juliflora products, while they have suffered considerably from lost grazing area and ill health of their livestock [clearly, conflict presents institutional and cultural threats, although this is not mentioned by the authors]"	"Yambassa people, Central Cameroon"																																																																													
	"Esra Per, Fellow Chapter 3"	2021/11/7	"Jaquet, S., Schwilch, G., Hartung-Hofmann, F., Adhikari, A., Sudmeier-Rieux, K., Shrestha, G., Liniger, H. P., and Kohler, T. 2015. Does outmigration lead to land degradation? Labour shortage and land management in a western Nepal watershed. "	"Place is the hills of Kaski District, Western Development Region of Nepal, there are 21 communities (various ethnic/caste groups) in the area, March 2013 and March 2014 "	"In every village, locals are given information. An in-depth demographic and household survey was done in six selected villages in order to have a full understanding of the residents and absentee population hills of Kaski District, Western Development Region of Nepal, there are 21 communities (91 households in total) in the area. "	banmara (Ageratum houstonianum) and nilo gandhe (Ageratum houstonianum) 	Spread	"Invasive plants are more common on cultivated ground, although they are also being present in the forest. Banmara grows more easily on the border of the forest, near the river, along roadsides, and on abandoned ground, but nilo gandhe is rarely observed in the forest "	"Climate change, land use change, Biodiversity loss"	"Climate change: Climate change is driving some species higher into grassland and grazing habitat; nilo ghande, which is harmful to animals, is a particular hazard. Land change and Biodiversity loss: Local experts say gnilo gandhe appeared on the lower fields five years ago and banmara more than ten years ago. Both species are spreading gradually to upper slopes due to increasing temperatures and land abandonmenth."	Demographic 	"Demographic: Here, migration has a long history and is important. While highland settlements are decreasing as a result of migration, communities at the valley bottom, such as Ghatichina and Thulakhet, are growing in population. Because there is less livestock and hence less manure, the soils of the less populated communities on the slopes or upwards are less fertile "	No data	"Experts and land users consider ""invasive species to be the biggest challenge. Invasive species have taken hold in the watershed over the past decade, hindering the growth of natural vegetation"" "	No data	"Due to the spread of banmara, bush encroachment is also a serious problem in the area. They prevent the growth of some trees and plants, resulting in biodiversity loss. Invasive species have also been linked to a loss of soil fertility. Another key issue with nilo gandhe is its toxicity to animals (Invasive species pose a threat to effective forest management practices such as community forestry, which is well-known for its effectiveness"	No data	"Invasive species have been limited in some places, but effective solutions have yet to emerge, owing to a perceived lack of understanding about invasive species and a lack of help from agricultural extension services."	"Despite the fact that banmara can be used as manure, its preparation is work-intensive, which is hampered by the manpower deficit in this sector."	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	"Effective solutions are still a continuing process, limited by a reported lack of understanding regarding invasive species and a lack of agricultural extension agencies' support "	No data	"There was more land abandonment upstream and more intense land use downstream, with implications not only for soil fertility but also for forest use and invasive species growth "	No data	No data	"Villagers, Kaski District"																																																																													
	"Ellen Ryan-Colton, fellow CH4"	14/07/2019 ERC	"Jevon and Shackleton 2015. Integrating Local Knowledge and Forest Surveys to Assess Lantana camara Impacts on Indigenous Species Recruitment in Mazeppa Bay, South Africa"	"Rural people, Including amaXhosa people in Mazeppa Bay area, Wild Coast, Amatole District of the Eastern Cape, South Africa"	"30 elders (65+), who had lived in the area for at least a few decades. Unstructured interviews by snowball sampling"	"Lantana camara ? geutywala bentakaf (ebirdfs beerf) because birds love to feed on the ripe fruit, Bjust as the way people love to drink beer.h (Jevon and Shackelton 2015 pg 250)"	Establishment	"Established in the last few decades and spreading rapidly. First noticed at a shop in the 1960s and then in 1971 the shopwoner stopping cutting his hedge of Lantana, and it spread from there. "	"Land-use and Sea-use change, Natural drivers"	"Ornamental introduction: Unmanaged garden hedge ? and then dispersal by birds. Changing land use: stopping of cultivation of arable fields, which where then highly disturbed ground for lantana to invade and no one was there working the fields to remove it. Natural drivers: bird dispersal and Lanata thrives in wetetr areas (riverbanks)"	Socio-cultural	change in IPLC activities - not working the arable fields so much anymore. 	No data	"negatively affects native plants, including limiting regrwoth of young trees and forest regneration. Reduces the qualilty of the forest, and specific forest species. "	"very occasional mimnor uses including ? kids eat the berries, use for kindling, added to their salad. "	"Negatively affects livelihoods overall. Summary ? damage to crops, competes with crops for space, competes with thatching grass and has reduced the amount of thatching grass for sale, no cultural or practical uses, limits access to sites where resources are harvested from the forest and cultural sites, disrupts livestock animals, reduces area for grazing livestock, safety issue for people as it harbors dangerous animals, reduces culturally important tree species, hampers fires which are needed to promote grass growth for livetsock and reduce ticks. "	No data	"Government doing some control in the forest, IPLC controlling it in their gardens and field. Manual removal and burning it, and follow up. 
Communal areas not being managed (forests/grazing land/roadsides) 
"	"Communal lands are not being managed for Lantana, and change of land use ? less people working out on the field. Fire alone has been shown to be not effective - Lanatan comes back. "	"Lantana  is destroying young trees ? said to be motive of government. IPLC felt the younger people lacked in motivation, because people are not working in the fields (ploughing) so they wont want to remove Lantana"	No data	no data	People are controlling Lantana in their own gardens	No data	"Less thatch available for selling, less area available for cropping and grazing livestock"	"Safety and security, Material and immaterial assets"	no data	Safety: people are fearful as Lantana harbours dangerous animals close to homesteads.  Material assets: Lantana has reduced a number of resources and negatively impacted peoples livelihoods overall 	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	IPLC own observations	No data	No data	"A full range of negative impacts to native plants and the condition of the forest and ability of the  forest to regnerate, as well as negative impacts on peoples liveliohods throuhg reducing resources, access to gathering sites, ability to crop and graze, habouring dangerous animals. "	"Used as an ornamental plant and then birds spread it from there once the hedge was not trimmed anymore. Spreads in wetter areas and in fields, as people are not managing the fields anymore and not controlling it there. So the change in land use has contributed to its spread. "	"Threat to cultural partices ? grazing, copping, cultural trees, regeneration of forest which provides many resources. No major uses of Lantana so not incorporating it into their culture "	"amaXhosa people, others Amatole district"																																																																													
	"Patricia Howard, LA Chpt. 6"	2021/8/19	"Joshi et al. 2001. Current status of the Golden Apple Snail in the Ifugao Rice Terraces, Philippines; Joshi et al. 2001; Farmers' knowledge, attitudes and practices of rice crop and pest management at Ifugao Rice Terraces, Philippines"	"Iloko, Ifugao, and Tagalog speaking indigenous subsistence rice farmers, Ifugao Rice Terraces, Philippines, 1998. Banaue, Mayoyao, and Hungduan counties in Ifugao Province. An increasing GAS population small paddy owners with 10 different income-generating activities, mainly woodcarving. Low or no external input traditional agriculture."	"127 farmers, 70% female, 30% male. none of the survey respondents had attended season-long IPM training/farm production-related training. A farmersf knowledge, attitudes, and practices (KAP) survey and snail sampling. Interviews largely conversational and unstructured. "	"Golden apple snail, Pomacea canaliculata (Lamarck) (Gastropoda: Ampullariidae), popularly known as ggolden kuholh in the Philippines. Ifugao farmers called GAS gbatikorh or ggolden kuholh"	Spread	"Introduced into the Philippines between 1982 and 1984 from Taiwan, Florida, and Argentina. First recorded as a major pest in the Philippines in 1986. As of January 1990, 11% of the total study area planted to rice had been infested. Invasion first occurred in Banaue, then in Mayoyao in 1982, and then in Hungduan in 1990. From 1990 until the survey period, farmers of Banaue, Mayoyao, and Hungduan observed an increasing GAS population. Snail survey showed GAS was present in 82.29% of the rice habitats with average shell density per square meter of three to 17.All terraces flooded with water, containing decomposing stubbles, or seedbed with germinating seeds, terraces adjacent to fishponds and newly transplanted fields, were heavily infested by GAS. Farmers mentioned that currently, GAS is not a problem in Kilawiyan, Ba-ang Poblacion, and Hapao, although the conditions are conducive to GAS."	"IAS, Natural drivers"	Natural:  Dispersed by water - e.g. river flows.	"Science, technology, and knowledge, Economic, Politics, governance and institutions"	"Science, technology:  Farmers reported that GAS was introduced the following ways: High yielding varities introduced and seedlings carrying GAS were transplated from lowlands. Farmers purchased GAS to feed on weeds in rice fields but weren't aware they would feed on rice plants. Control of GAS can spread: if disposed of into rivers and canals. Introduced as food for humans and pigs Politics: Governments introduced GAS as a source of protein for livestock and humans. "	Biodiversity loss. 	Farmers report that native snail populations were reduced by GAS; scientific snail survey contradicted this. GAS also damages many other cultivated and non-cultivated plants	No data 	"Nearly all (95%) of [farmers] perceived GAS as their main pest, after earthworms and rats. GAS caused a yield loss of 5-40% as claimed by 44.05% farmer-respondents, though 30.06% of them claimed 41-50% yield loss. Farmers experienced difficulty estimating yield loss because they replant missing hills. Farmers considered GAS to be an extremely damaging pest, especially during the rice seedling/early vegetative stages. Most farmers believed that infested plants during these stages would not yield at all. Very few of them thought that rice plants could still recover after being injured, and most farmers said that in such cases, it caused uneven crop maturity. Yield loss would be very high if GAS were not removed. "	"Farmerscinformed us that the rice variety, Pinidua, was sturdier and, therefore, not easily injured by GAS "	"Handpicking GAS before sewing seeds is most widely practiced - left on terraces to die, or crushed. Raising seedbeds, and crushing/smashing eggs. Drop eggs into water so they will not hatch.  During hot periods, GAS bury themselves in the soil, so farmers till with water buffalo to expose GAS to desiccation and natural predators. Water management followed by transplanting. Biological attractants: use of trumpet flower, sunflower, taro leaves and stems as attractants. Farmers scatter twigs with leaves of the indigenous plants on the water surface of the newly prepared terraced fields to attract GAS. The next morning they handpick large numbers of congregated GAS from the scattered indigenous plant parts to which GAS are either attached or fed upon. Pesticides:  88.2%  did not use pesticides because most of these were either not effective or too expensive"	" Use of metal screens as advised by researchers is not popular, as Water fern clogs screens. Handpicking - if are disposed of in canals or rivers, this spreads them into rice fields.  Mosts pesticides  either not effective or too expensive, contaminate water and kill native fish and shells, and are harmful for human health. Agroecosytems in the IRT are extremely complex, which require specific technologies to manage GAS rather than employing blanket recommendations/approaches. Control methods must be effective since yields are not completely lost, which they would be without control."	"Increase rice yields, reduce labour costs (latter is implicit)"	"Utilisation of invasive species, Manage invasive species as a resource "	"In Banaue, GAS are cooked and eaten by farmers (20.4%), or fed to ducks and pigs though in small amounts to hasten egglaying (ducks); GAS can reduce weeds in mature rice."	"Women farmers and small children in Bocos collect one big kerosene can of GAS for about 20 pesos ( = US$ 0.50). This is an added job to farmers because of regular collection during and after land preparation, and during and after transplanting"	Pesticides are too expensive.	"GAS caused a yield loss of 5-40% as claimed by 44.05% farmer-respondents, though 30.06% of them claimed 41-50% yield loss. Farmers experienced difficulty in estimating yield loss because farmers replanted missing hills. "	Material and immaterial assets	"Feed for ducks and pigs, human food. Wage labour for women and children. "	Extra labour costs for farmers; yield losses	No data	No data	No data 	No data	No data	"Extended household surveys among Pokot show that more livestock migrate to the lake shores and that the borders to neighbouring ethnic communities are increasingly contested... livestock further away to egreener groundsf in the Rift Valley or onto the Laikipia plateau, where inter-ethnic con?icts are not only frequent but also increasingly violent."	Only ILK	"Climatic change and rapidly progressing shortage of land trigger invasive spread, and invasives are likely to increase in number and intensity. Without control, invasive spread and adaptation of the social sub-system, the area is expected to head for a state of collapse, further exacerbating the degradation of the resource base, and generating increasingly violent con?icts associated with competition for scarce resources"	"Discussions with pastoralists and recently sedentarized crop farmers in the area in 2014, underlined their growing concern and despair with this enew weedf (Dodonea)."	"""Where you see Prosopis, no more grass will grow."" Pokot people view Dodonaea with growing concern. They see a clear relation between, lack of fallows, ?eld clearing by ?re and land preparation by ploughing and Dodonaea spread. They also alleged that once there is an over-growth of Dodonaea on these ?elds, pasture production declines."	"""Burning their wings, makes tabalak seeds [Dodonaea] fall on the ground and there they start to grow.""
""When tilling or burning the land, you are seeding tabalak [Dodonaea].""
Dodonaea is not palatable for browsing animals and reportedly inhibits the growth of grasses, thus affecting the availability and quality of forage. 
Pokot people see a clear relation between lack of fallows, ?eld clearing by ?re and land preparation by ploughing and Dodonaea spread. They also alleged that once there is an over-growth of Dodonaea on these ?elds, pasture production declines "	"The extent and speed of  [climate change and invasives]...has exceeded the capacity of local communities to adapt their productive systems, destabilizing the socio-ecology of the dryland savannahs around Lake Baringo and placing them in imminent danger of collapse "	Ifugao people																																																																													
MM.1	"Bharat B Shrestha, LA Ch. 6"	19/7/2021	"Kannan, et al. 2016. Can local use assist in controlling invasive alien species in tropical forests? The case of Lantana camara in southern India. Forest Ecology and Management 376: 166?173. doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2016.06.016."	"Local artisans who were the member of Lantana users group [Those who were utilizing Lantana stem for preparing handicrafts such as basket]. Malai Mahadeshwara (MM) Hills Reserve Forest located in the Chamarajanagar district, Karnataka state, India. [Time of social survey not mentioned but associated ecological sampling done during 2010-2012]"	61 households (Malai Mahadeshwara Hills - 10 households; Chittoor - 19 hh and Dindigul - 32 hh); Focus group discussion [No further details in the article]	"Lantana camara; gNearly 85% of the craftsmen mentioned that Lantana coppices profusely after harvest and is promoted by monsoon rains in June-Septemberh  gMost of the artisans regarded birds as the major seed dispersers of Lantanah .
"	Spread	"gOver 80% of the artisans mentioned that the distance travelled to collect Lantana has increased in recent years, perhaps reflecting the shrinking of Lantana resources nearer their homesteads. Many also mentioned that it was harder to find large stems, which are necessary for certain furniture items. The craftsmen who used to collect Lantana from wastelands in Dindigul explained that they could no longer do so because the area had been taken over by either real estate or mango cultivation. They now are forced to go into the nearby dry deciduous forest to access Lantana.h
gcc fire and land transformation (mango cultivation/real estate) reduce the availability and regeneration of Lantana.h
"	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	Use of Lantana stem for preparation of handicraft such as the basket which had supported the livelihood of the communities involved	No data	No data	"gIn this study we have shown for a small sample of sites that in the process of using Lantana as a resource for enhancing local livelihoods, the communities can contribute to reduced densities, because under particular conditions extraction led to a reduction in regeneration and mortality of the plants.""
gTherefore, harvesting of Lantana in MM Hills can be regarded as unsustainable at small spatial scales.h  [Unsustainable harvesting is desirable for the invasive alien species].
gc. promoting the use of Lantana (as well as other IAS) by local communities can be viewed as one strategy towards managing the species.h "	"Effectiveness: gThis study has shown that given the existing scale of use, that (i) there is an increasing difficulty in procuring large stemmed plants for making larger products such as furniture, (ii) due to continuous harvesting of Lantana over the last decade or so, there is a reduction in Lantana density in areas harvested compared to those not harvested, (iii) while coppicing is evident, there is often a substantial mortality of coppiced stems, and (iv) the plant [Lantana] dies on harvest of the primary stem during the wet seasonh"	"gVillage boundaries are demarcated and carved out from the forest. Firewood collection and grazing are prohibited and offenders face a penalty, but most families depend on firewood as their primary energy source. Lantana is listed as a weed and the forest department currently allows harvesting of Lantana from the MM Hills Reserve Foresth"	Utilisation of invasive species	"Local community members collected Lantana stem from the forests and other vegetation, and utilize them for the preparation of baskets which were primarily used for the transport of flowers, tomato and vegetables."	"Individuals were involved in collection of Lantana stem from wild, and preparation of baskets. 
gIt is estimated that a total length of about 7840 m of big stems, 45,238 m of medium stems and 16,633 m of small stems are required by the MM Hills artisans per yearh. 
[There was no quantification of labor invested for the collection of Lantana stem and preparation of baskets from them]
"	No data	No data	Material and immaterial assets	Harvest of Lantana stem and preparation of baskets from them contributed to the livelihood of the local communities.	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	gc.. promoting the use of Lantana (as well as other IAS) by local communities can be viewed as one strategy towards managing the species.h  	"""Nearly 85% of the craftsmen mentioned that Lantana coppices profusely after harvest and is promoted by monsoon rains in June-Septemberh  gMost of the artisans regarded birds as the major seed dispersers of Lantanah"	No data	No data	Harvesting and utilization of Lantana stem became a part of livelihood support system of the local communities	"MM Hills, Karnataka State"																																																																													
MM.2	"Bharat B Shrestha, LA Ch. 6"	20/7/2021	"Kannan,et al. 2014. Invasive alien species as drivers in socio-ecological systems: local adaptations towards use of Lantana in Southern India. Environment, Development and Sustainability 16: 649?669. doi:10.1007/s10668-013-9500-y.

"	"gThe respondents of the study belong to several ethnic communities, namely Koravas (41 %), Soligas (27 %), Madigas (16 %), Irulas (10 %) and Pallar (6 %)h gThe study was located in the following sites: Hannehola and Kommudikki in MM Hills Reserve Forest in Chamrajanagar District, Pudhupatti, Anjukullipatti and Vedasandur in Dindigul District and Cheelampalle in Chittoor District in southern Indiah"	"There were two groups informants: 1) Users of Lantana: those who used Lantana stem for crafting baskets and furniture, and 2) Non-users of Lantana: people of the same communities but they did not use Lantana for the preparation of handicrafts. Household level questionnaire survey among the users of Lantana and the non-users selected randomly from the list of each household of each ethnic group."	Lantana camara	Spread	Abundance of Lantana increased in recent decades	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	"gIn the past 20?25 years, the agricultural activities in this region suffered due to a series of drought, crop failure and land-use change (real estate). Consequently, the community was affected deeply because they were highly dependent on agriculture as wage labourers. About 25 years ago, a certain Mr. Billappa discovered a huge demand for baskets, in the nearby market in Madanapalle, for transporting tomatoes to Bangalore and Chennai. He encouraged people to weave baskets [from Lantana] whose marketing he coordinated in Madanapalle. Today, the Madigas, supply baskets for tomato and flower growers in Madanapalle, Kolar and Palmanare.h  gc. the user group obtained income from Lantana use while the nonuser group relied mostly on either forest resources or from trading. However, the total income derived per household by members of the two groups [those using Lantana and those not using Lantana] was nearly the same. The income deficit in the user group due to forest resources and trading was made good by the income from Lantanach gc. the use of Lantana by the user group and forest resources by the nonuser group appear to be mutually substitutable activities. Indeed, they are similar in that Lantana is also collected mostly from the forest. Therefore, the concentrated use of a single NTFP, i.e. Lantana, represents significant specializationh "	No data	No data	No specific information mentioned [but it can be anticipated that use of Lantana stem in a huge amount might have contributed for its control]	No data	"The informants largely depended on agriculture labore for their livelihood in the past. Significant reduction in agriculture activities due to drought, crop failure and land use changes in last 20-25 years threaten the livelihood of these communities. Traditionally, they also depended on bamboo harvested from wild for the preparation of baskets which they sold in the market. Severe decline in bamboo due to over-exploitation coincided with expansion of Lantana. Therefore, the informant shifted from bamboo-based activities to Lantana-based activities. The utilization of Lantana indirectly contributed to its control."	Utilisation of invasive species	"gc..communities have made use of Lantana for fuel wood, in fencing their agricultural lands and as a substitute for bamboo and rattans to make baskets and furnitureh  gUse of Lantana could be traced to at least 25?30 years ago for the Lantana basket weaver communities and more recently (<7 years) for Lantana furniture makersh. gWhile the latter [furniture makers] were prompted to use Lantana by external agencies, it is not immediately clear how the basket weavers (early adopters) took to Lantana. Personal interviews with respondents in this basket weaver group indicated that elder members of their respective families passed on the skills of using Lantana for basketryh "	No data	No data	"From agriculture laborer and bamboo-based handicrafts, households and communities shifted to the production of handicrafts from Lantana."	Material and immaterial assets	"Utilization of Lantana stem for the preparation of handicraft to sell in the local market emerged as an alternative livelihood option after decline in agriculture activities and availability of bamboo in the wild. gc. the user group obtained income from Lantana use while the nonuser group relied mostly on either forest resources or from trading. However, the total income derived per household by members of the two groups [those using Lantana and those not using Lantana] was nearly the same. The income deficit in the user group due to forest resources and trading was made good by the income from Lantanach gc. the Koravas and the Soligas living in this area and who were once thriving on the bamboo resources in the forests were no longer free to do so. If any, they had to pay the forest department for the bamboo they obtained. Under these circumstances, it appears that they took to Lantana, which was increasingly abundant.h "	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	"gWhile the latter [furniture makers] were prompted to use Lantana by external agencies, it is not immediately clear how the basket weavers (early adopters) took to Lantana. Personal interviews with respondents in this basket weaver group indicated that elder members of their respective families passed on the skills of using Lantana for basketryh "	No data	"gThus, any IAS control or management initiatives need to consider the impact not only on the IAS, but also the livelihoods of local people. Unfortunately, this dilemma has failed to be addressed sufficiently in the literature on IAS. The response of the local communities to IAS can range all the way from exclusion (where, like the forest managers, communities might want to eradicate the weed and thus prevent their biological resources from being impacted by IAS) to inclusion (where the IAS might be actually used). The first option is rarely encountered at a local level usually because of the spatial scale of invasion as well as the logistics of control. On the other hand, it is very conceivable that communities could actually explore and innovate the use of the new resource, especially if in some way the IAS can make good their loss.h "	No data	No data	No data	No data	"Soliga, various other tribals, MMH and elsewhere"																																																																													
	"Esra Per, Fellow Chapter 3"	2021/11/7	"Kaufmann, J. 2004. Prickly Pear Cactus and Pastoralism in Southwest Madagascar. "	The Mahafale live in one of Madagascar's most difficult biophysical conditions 	"Madagascar's Mahafale cattle raisers, Literature review"	"the prickly pear cactus (Opuntia), O. monacantha, the virulent cochineal Dactylopius tomentosus"	Spread	"the prickly pear was introduced to Madagascar as a defensive hedge. The cactus flourished on sandy soils, reproducing by its widely dispersed cochineal parasites until they were introduced to combat the prickly pear's ""impenetrable"" defenses. "	Natural drivers	"gAccording to a colonial officer who Madagascar's ""cactus country,"" the plant did not reproduce cattle had eaten its fruit and excreted seeds in dung-in gateaux verts. Its global distribution is linked to the cochineal Dactylopius coccus, often known as Coccus cactus, a bug coveted as a fabric dye on various continents. "	"Economic, Demographic "	Economic: Transporting cattle over long distances contributed to its entry into such a large area. Pastoralists have turned to cactus to keep their animals alive rather than relying on nomadism to find water and pasture. New cacti transfers resulting in the introduction of new raketa into the environment. Their utilization of Opuntia has had sedentary and transhumant intensification economic consequences Demographic: the rapid cactus is always an indication of human action 	No data	"WriteThe virulent cochineal Dactylopius tomentosus had wiped out the Malagasy cactus, which had covered an area the size of Madagascar, by 1928 "	"The Mahafale pastoralist way of life has been influenced by prickly pear, particularly in terms of mobility, food, and gender relations.  Although this plant species was primarily used as a source of income for pastoralists, it also had a political purpose. Cactus contributed to the transhumant migration's timing by allowing animals to consume cactus fodder when pastures were barren and until the rainy season began."	"Ingested prickly pear spikes irritate the respiratory tract, causing lung infections and even death"	No data	"D. ceylonicus, one of the cochineal species, is considered the best biocontrol prickly pear pest in the world"	No data	No data	Utilisation of invasive species	"Utilisation of invasive species: According to a middle-aged Mahafale herder; ""We have to plant many kinds of garden crops because cattle need those crops too."" They saw themselves as superior pastoralists after incorporating Opuntia into their farming operations "	" Mahafale transhumance has also been influenced by Opuntia. Prickly pear has been integrated into the local economy by both men and women, young and old. While men were responsible for keeping cattle alive with Opuntia, they couldn't have done it without the help of women who worked just as hard to feed their families. Despite the fact that fruits provided some cash, women regarded these foods as far more necessary for domestic usage."	No data	"Prickly pear was utilized by Mahafale to ""plant"" their settlements because the plants provide a source of water and nourishment, allowing herders to roam about more frequently in search of water and pasture for their livestock. As a result, this plant has become a must for mobility (Kaufmann 2004, 356)."	No data	No data	No data	Settlement / land use	"Pastoralism based on cactus has recovered from famine in recent years. The transhumant pattern was stabilized by cactus, which had a significant impact on the timing of Mahafale seasonal migrations "	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	"water-A skilled cactus cultivator at Androka pointed at a cactus grove in his garden said, Raketa attracts water and other edible plants seeking water."" For pastoralists, there are two main ways for adapting to an arid or ecological vulnerable to environmental change, decline, overuse, and climatic change. Either they move to greener pastures or adapt their pastoralist techniques to the changing environment"	"Opuntia is valued by pastoralists for its economic benefits. Pastoralism existed without Opuntia in the hot, arid Southwest, but pastoralists became reliant on it to increase the land's carrying capacity "	"The cactus ""increases the aeration of the ground, permeability, the infiltration of rainwater, the availability of water, etc."" "	"The ability to move livestock over long distances contributed to its ability to cover such a large area. Pastoralists altered their habitat with cactus, enhanced the natural environment, and increased their chances of survival with a powerful plant resource."	"""pastoralism notably cannot be practiced without Opuntia"" "	Mahafale pastoralists																																																																													
MM.4	"Bharat B Shrestha, LA Ch. 6"	25/7/2021	"Kent, R., and A. Dorward. 2015. Livelihood responses to Lantana camara invasion and biodiversity change in southern India: application of an asset function framework. Regional Environmental Change 15: 353?364. doi:10.1007/s10113-014-0654-4.

"	"Hindu Lingayat and indigenous Soliga (a Scheduled Tribe); livelihood based on mix of permanent agriculture, wage labor, basketry, and livestock rearing; Kombuddikki vollate in the Male Mahadeshwara Hills (MM Hills) forest reserve in Chamarajanagar, the southernmost District of Karnataka, India; July, August and December 2011."	"Men and women of Lingayat and Soliga communities; Interview using semi-structured questionnaire, focused group discussion, key informant interview, review of historical contexts."	Lantana camara	Spread	gElderly informants recalled that lantana first appeared after the bamboo extraction that followed the bamboo flowering in the 1970s.h 	Resource extraction	gElderly informants recalled that lantana first appeared after the bamboo extraction that followed the bamboo flowering in the 1970s.h 	No data	No data	No data	"gA number of forest products used by villagers (fodder grasses, small bamboos, Phoenix, and wild foods) are perceived to have declined in recent decades. The presence of lantana, smothering and crowding out other vegetation, is widely blamed for these changes.h "	No data	"gA number of forest products used by villagers (fodder grasses, small bamboos, Phoenix, and wild foods) are perceived to have declined in recent decades. The presence of lantana, smothering and crowding out other vegetation, is widely blamed for these changes.h gc.. the presence of lantana was widely lamented for its negative impact on the forest. The lantana-dominated undergrowth makes it difficult to gather forest products, and travel through the forest is slow. The high density of lantana close to the village means that it is now necessary to travel further for many forest products: gWe are not at all going to collect muste [a leaf] and sonde [a fruit] nowadays. You have to walk all the way to the foothills and spend the whole day ? so we are not getting it anymore. Only lantana is there nowhh  gThe increased danger of animal encounters, especially elephants, was a recurring theme throughout the research. This risk is mainly associated with poor visibility in the forest due to lantana, and villagers are no longer confident that they can avoid wild animals.h  gThe obstruction of smaller forest paths by lantana also means that humans and animals are sharing the same routes, thus potentially increasing the likelihood of encounters. Furthermore, lantana adds to the danger when animals are encountered because moving to safety is difficult.h gBecause of the lantana we cannot lead life. We cannot enter the forest with our cattle. [If we could] then we would not need to go outside for work. But here the forest is no good. If the forest was good the cattle and goats could be grazed and we would live here only.h gProductivity of forest grasses is perceived to have been severely affected by the lantana invasion. Respondents describe a time when the forest was more open, spacious, and efull of grassf. Now, herders feel compelled to travel further into the forest and into more dangerous steep and rocky areas in search of grass; they spend more time grazing and have to move continuously to find fodder. Cattle herders contend that their animals return hungry and weak and are thus more vulnerable to disease, falls, and attacks by wildlife.h  gThere is a perception that Phoenix is in decline due to lantana and that collection takes longer as a result. Women repeatedly expressed concern about the future of this source of income.h "	No data	No data	No data	No data	"Changes in livestock systems, Changes in wild resource systems"	"Changes in livestock system: gBecause of the lantana we cannot lead life. We cannot enter the forest with our cattle. [If we could] then we would not need to go outside for work. But here the forest is no good. If the forest was good the cattle and goats could be grazed and we would live here only.h  gProductivity of forest grasses is perceived to have been severely affected by the lantana invasion. Respondents describe a time when the forest was more open, spacious, and efull of grassf. Now, herders feel compelled to travel further into the forest and into more dangerous steep and rocky areas in search of grass; they spend more time grazing and have to move continuously to find fodder. Cattle herders contend that their animals return hungry and weak and are thus more vulnerable to disease, falls, and attacks by wildlife.h   Change in wild resources system: gA number of forest products used by villagers (fodder grasses, small bamboos, Phoenix, and wild foods) are perceived to have declined in recent decades. The presence of lantana, smothering and crowding out other vegetation, is widely blamed for these changes.h  gc.. the presence of lantana was widely lamented for its negative impact on the forest. The lantana-dominated undergrowth makes it difficult to gather forest products, and travel through the forest is slow. The high density of lantana close to the village means that it is now necessary to travel further for many forest products: gWe are not at all going to collect muste [a leaf] and sonde [a fruit] nowadays. You have to walk all the way to the foothills and spend the whole day ? so we are not getting it anymore. Only lantana is there nowhh  gThere is a perception that Phoenix is in decline due to lantana and that collection takes longer as a result. Women repeatedly expressed concern about the future of this source of income.h "	No data	No data	No data	"Safety and security, Social, spiritual and cultural relations"	No data	"Safety and security: gThe increased danger of animal encounters, especially elephants, was a recurring theme throughout the research. This risk is mainly associated with poor visibility in the forest due to lantana, and villagers are no longer confident that they can avoid wild animals.h  gThe obstruction of smaller forest paths by lantana also means that humans and animals are sharing the same routes, thus potentially increasing the likelihood of encounters. Furthermore, lantana adds to the danger when animals are encountered because moving to safety is difficult.h Social, spiritual and cultural relations: gBecause of the lantana we cannot lead life. We cannot enter the forest with our cattle. [If we could] then we would not need to go outside for work. But here the forest is no good. If the forest was good the cattle and goats could be grazed and we would live here only.h "	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	gc.. NGO projects in MM Hills have encouraged the use of lantana in craft and furniture making.h 	No data	No data	gElderly informants recalled that lantana first appeared after the bamboo extraction that followed the bamboo flowering in the 1970s.h 	"gA number of forest products used by villagers (fodder grasses, small bamboos, Phoenix, and wild foods) are perceived to have declined in recent decades. The presence of lantana, smothering and crowding out other vegetation, is widely blamed for these changes.h"	No data	No data	"Soliga, Lingayat tribals, MMH, Karnataka state"																																																																													
CH.1	"Bridget B Umar, LA Chpt 6"	17/07/2021	"Khadka, 2017, Assessment of the perceived effects and management challenges of Mikania micrantha invasion in Chitwan National Park buffer zone community forest, Nepal "	"Kumroj Buffer Zone Community Forest, in Dun valley of Chitwan District Nepal"	165 Interviews households of Kumroj buffer zone community forest	"Mile ?a-minute, Banmara, Banlude jhar, and Barahmase (Mikania micrantha)"	Spread	"gThe majority of respondents (85%) believed that M. micrantha has increased in the last five years, replacing and hindering regeneration of the native species"	"Natural drivers, Climate change"	"climate adaptation,wind, wildlife movement,  and M. micranthafs own propagation "	"Politics, governance and institutions"	rules restricting entry into the forest 	No data	"The invasive species is known to overshadow small trees, shrubs and herbs which results in the reduction of native species. "	"M. micrantha was used for making briquettes, as fodders, medicine , and manure."	"Mikania had significantly decreased the provision of fuel wood and fodder, "	No data	no control measures	Those not reliant on forest products were not interested in participating in removal of the IAS	no control measures undertaken	"Utilisation of invasive species, Changes in livestock systems, Changes in tree / forest systems"	"(1)Changes in livestock systems: physical inaccessibility to grasses in invaded areas (2)Changes in tree or forest systems: 77% indicated that there was a significant change in forest product availability;  the majority (72%) indicated that the forest products were decreasing (3)Utilisation of invasive species: Respondents who said they were using M. micrantha to cope with the invasion were using the invasive species for making briquettes, as fodders, medicine and manure."	No data	No data	"Many strategies were used by the household to cope with the scarcity of forest products due to M. micrantha invasion in the study area. The most common strategy was use of alternatives i.e. instead of getting firewood and fodder from the forest, bio-gas and hay was used respectively. "	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	"Lack of management in the community forest (CF) was found to be the  Reasons for the spread  given were lack of management in the community forest, restriction of entry into the forest, climate adaptation and wind "	No data	Inhabitants of Chitwan National Park buffer zone																																																																													
	"Tatsiana Lipinskaya, Fellow, Chpt1"	25/06/2021 TL	Koichi et al 2012. Aboriginal Rangersf Perspectives on Feral Pigs:  Are they a Pest or a Resource?  A Case Study in the Wet Tropics World Heritage Area of Northern Queensland 	"1-st group -Girringun in Cardwell. Northern region of the Wet Tropics World Heritage Area (WTWHA), including Cardwell, Mossman and Wujal Wujal. North Queensland, Australia"	Aboriginal rangers from four Aboriginal Corporations which represent descent groups. Face-to-face semi-structured interviews 	Feral pigs (Sus scrofa)	Spread	"N.d., there is information that there are too many pigs in the national parks and they are breeding faster than other native animal"	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	"the negative environmental impacts of feral pigs that resulted from their rooting behaviours when foraging in the rainforests such as:
Destruction of vegetation Run-off and soil erosion Predation on and damage to bush tucker (e.g. native ginger, native wildlife including turtle eggs and scrub turkeys? nests and eggs) Dispersal of introduced plant seeds including lantana through excretion and germination."	No data	"Negative socio-economic implications also arise when pigs predate on or damage culturally preferred food source (?bush tucker?) for Aboriginal people. Safety issues to people (because pigs can be aggressive and attack people) Damage and disturbance to cultural heritage or Aboriginal sacred sites including cave painting or rock art (especially when pigs rub up against the historical and cultural artwork) and shell middens. Summarising their negative perceptions about feral pig impacts on the Aboriginal people in the region, stating gthe rainforest means everything to traditional owners including land ownership, spiritual, cultural, social and economic values, and pigs affect those values a great deal.h"	No data	No data	different socio-economic factors for different Aboriginal groups within the WTWHA resulted in different perceptions of the environmental as well as socio-economic and cultural costs and benefits of pigs. Here pig is as a pest.	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	"Different values attached to feral pigs pose a management challenge of how to treat pigs: as a resource or a pest.

"	No data	No data	No data	distinguish alien speciess from a gnative speciesh and have different ideas about species  - that are depending on socio-economic factors for different Aboriginal groups within the WTWHA resulted in different perceptions of the environmental as well as socio-economic and cultural costs and benefits of pigs	"the negative environmental impacts of feral pigs that resulted from their rooting behaviours when foraging in the rainforests such as:
Destruction of vegetation Run-off and soil erosion Predation on and damage to bush tucker (e.g. native ginger, native wildlife including turtle eggs and scrub turkeys? nests and eggs) Dispersal of introduced plant seeds including lantana through excretion and germination."	No data	No data																																																																														
	"Ellen Ryan-Colton, fellow CH4"	12/07/2021 ERC	"Kosaka et al 2010. Roadside Distribution Patterns of Invasive Alien Plants Along an Altitudinal Gradient in Arunachal Himalaya, India "	"IPLC in Arunachal Himalayas, in the eastern part of the Himalayas, provinces of Assam and Arunachal Pradesh, in India"	3-5 local residents in 3 villages of the Arunachal Himalaya. Conversations with residents and field surveys for the alien plants. 	"8 alien plants mentioned specifically by IPLC, out of 18 found in the region by the surveys. Ageratum conyzoides, Ageratina adenophora, Chromolaena odorata, Mikania micrantha, Ipomoea carnea, Eichhornia crassipes, Solanum carolinense, Stachytarpheta dichotoma. "	Spread	"Spreading since the 1950s onwards: gIn Along (270 m), residents reported that S. carolinense was found after a road was built to Assam before 1990. M. micrantha and S. dichotoma have expanded their range since 2000. In Ziro (1600 m), A. artemisiifolia and S. carolinense spread after the road was connected from Assam in the 1950s. The spread of S. carolinense was related to the introduction of cattle from Assam that disseminated its seed. E. crassipes was introduced in 1970s, followed by G. quadriradiata after 2000.h (Kosaka et al 2010 pg 257)"	Land-use and Sea-use change	"IPLC view road construction and road use as the drivers of invasion, as well as introduction of cattle which brought the seed. Some intentional introductions but many unintentional . "	"Politics, governance and institutions, Economic"	"Politics: Government policy of road construction after Indias independence in 1947, as well as agricultural production. Economic: tourism is a big activity now, with many more visitors [leading to increased road use]. "	No data	no data	"A. conyzoides - medicinal. E. crassipes - improved fish growth in aquaculture. G. quadriradiata was eaten as a vegetable, and the fruit of S. carolinense was used as medicine against toothache (Kosaka et al 2010 pg 2570"	"I. carnea impedes drainage, E. crassipes prostrates rice plants when plants drift onto wet fields during seasonal floods, M. micrantha and S. dichotoma were reported to damage crops production. The spines on S. carolinense disturbed agriculture. A. conyzoides and G. quadriradiata were regarded as major weeds, and downy fruits of A. adenophora and C. odorata were reported to cause breathing problems"" (Kosaka et al 2010 pg 257)"	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data 	No data	No data	"Benefical uses included alien plants for medicne, vegetable and to improve fish growth in aquaculture. Detrimnetal impacts included many detriments to agriculture - reducing crop production by overhadowing fields, causing drainge problems and rice to go flat, spines causing problems; and some alien plant fruits causing breathing difficulties. "	"IPLC say the road construction and road use is driving the spread of the invasive plants, as well as introduction of cattle that brought the seeds, and some deliberate introductions"	No data	Tribes in Arunachal Himalayas																																																																													
	"Elena Tricarico, LA Chpt. 2"	2021/7/11	Ksenofontov et al. (2019) eThere are new speciesf: indigenous knowledge of biodiversity change in Arctic Yakutia.	"Three communities of two Arctic Yakutian regions: Chokurdakh and Olenegorsk in the Allaikhovsky region and Kyusyur in the Bulunsky region, situated in the Arctic Circle "	"All categories of IK holders actively involved in traditional activities or closely connected to the natural environment, including fishers, hunters, reindeer herders, gatherers and herbalists/experts; 34 interviews to local people; literature review; expert interview"	"Several animals are reported in the Table 1 of the article as new species. Some of them are surely alien (e.g. muskrat gandaatarah Ondatra zibetichus). Unknown plants, flowers, fish, birds are reported without any scientific and local names, so they could be alien or native spreading due to climate change."	"Spread, Introduction "	Increase. New species are reported in the area.	"Climate change, Land-use and Sea-use change, Resource extraction"	gGlobal change has affected Arctic Yakutia. Local people observe climatic changes over recent decades. Land use and technology adaptation are also considered to have impacted Arctic Yakutian biodiversity. Biodiversity has undergone changes due to overexploitation as wellh. (Ksenofontov et al. 2019)	No data	No data	No data	No data	"g New berries, flowers and plants arouse interest of the northerners, especially in the context of poor vegetation diversity of the regionc.A range of new plants is reported to have health promoting effectsc.For local people, berries are a source of vitamins. The appearance of new berries enriches their dietsch(Ksenofontov et al. 2019)"	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	Utilisation of invasive species	"For plants, climate change and human accidental introduction are hypothesized. Some of these plants enriched the diets of the local people."	No data	No data	No data	No data	Some plants (no distinction on how they arrived in the area) are reported to have health effect and to enrich the diet of local people	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	Local people just mentioned that new species appeared	"For predators, they assessed the impacts on reindeer and fishery (but only wolfs and bears are mentioned). For plants (no distinction of native spreading or real IAS) they considered the effects for their diet and health."	"They recognized that climate change, land use change and technologies and overexploitation are important drivers."	No data	Arctic Yakutian indigenous peoples																																																																													
	"Esra Per, Fellow Chapter 3"	08.23.2021	Kull et al. 2019	"The eastern Madagascar, fieldwork was conducted in July 2014, February - April 2016, and July 2016 "	"Interviews with local authorities, forest officials, and village elders were conducted, as well as discussions with other village inhabitants. In addition, firewood and charcoal vendors in rural towns were interviewed "	"the Australian Melaleuca quinquenervia (known as gniaoulih), Grevillea banksia, dwarf silky oak (Proteaceae), a non-native shrubby tree, Acacia mangium, the Australian Melaleuca quinquenervia (known as gniaoulih) "	Spread	"By around 1950, the Grevillea banksii had been introduced as a potential reforestation species in the Ivoloina forest station and in erosion control trials near Lake Alaotra. Scrubby, monospecific stands of non-native Grevillea banksii are commonly found throughout the landscape. the Australian Melaleuca quinquenervia (also known as ""niaouli""), which has been introduced since at least 1914, with a few hundred hectares of plantations by the 1940s (Louvel, 1924, 1951), and is now a common, albeit invasive, feature in the eastern lowlands' marshes and wetlands. Acacia mangium, a tropical broadleaf phyllodinous acacia common in Southeast Asia's forest industry, is a more recent Australian introduction. "	No data	No data	"Politics, governance and institutions, Economic"	"Politics, governance and institutions: Grevillea banksii was promoted and spread by government agents in a number of places, most notably in the 1980s, with the goal of reforestation. In order to establish char coal woodlots, locals sometimes propagate seedlings or seeds themselves. For the environment and development, it is necessary to green barren terrain. The initial, and most frequent, view about grevillea is that it is necessary for greening desolate terrain. Grevillea's introduction and spread are based on this perspective.

Economic: Acacia mangium seedlings are widely dispersed through a variety of development, agroforestry, and mine rehabilitation programs.
According to informants, the growth of grevillea forests has coincided with changes in land tenure systems. Village members or urban charcoal entrepreneurs are increasingly claiming and titling open grassland areas that were previously used as grazing commonage."	"Grevillea severely decreased soil microbial activity in a tiny patch of natural woodland, disrupting mycorrhizal and nitrogen-fixing symbioses. It was also discovered that the species formed cluster roots to cope with deteriorated soil locations and that it increased soil phosphatase activity in specific areas. This knowledge proving that grevillea poses a hazard to native forest species' regrowth. Grevillea could be considered a 'transformer species,' that causes a regime shift in the character of ecosystems over large areas, due to its conversion of grassland into monospecific stands "	Government studies mentions grevillea positively in the context of reforestation efforts. Eastern Madagascar's grevillea forests could be considered a forest transition because their expansion is expanding forest area in a previously deforested region 	"People stressed the potential of grevillea flowers in the production of honey. Due to its availability, the species has been utilized as minor construction wood in a few situations, although the wood quality is mediocre and requires frequent replacement. Environmental services such as revegetation of degraded regions, air purity, the return of birds to the ecosystem, and rainfall regulation were also mentioned. Leaves of the Australian Melaleuca are gathered for sale to commercial essential oil distilleries; Madagascar niaouli oil accounts for around a fifth of the global supply  "	No data	No data	"Because of its extensive distribution, eradication is not an option; nevertheless, environmental managers may choose to focus on localized control or eradication measures, such as in nature reserves where grevillea has been detected"	No data	"The term ""biological invasion"" is a more recent method of describing the problem that has gained importance in policy circles. Given the tree's economic importance, any attempts to reduce or ""control"" the invasion might have huge economic and political consequences (even if individuals recognized negative aspects to the presence of grevillea). "	Utilisation of invasive species	"Utilisation of invasive species: Some people mentioned disadvantages. First, it was stated that grevillea is difficult to eradicate because it re-sprouts from cut stumps and roots, and the seeds spread rapidly after being burned. Second, the species takes up a lot of area, limiting the amount of land available for other activities like agriculture expansion. Third, the plant competes with food crops such as hill rice and cassava, requiring costly weeding. Fourth, some persons mentioned harmful soil effects (three times less than those who stated the contrary). Finally, some people mentioned the negative effects of grevillea charcoal production and transportation on their lung health. Sixth, a dozen interviewees said that greater tree cover could lead to insecurity, allowing for hostility or violence to take place. Finally, the tree's spread reduces pastureland, harming farmers who formerly relied on common pasture and, in one hamlet, a household that relied on collecting grass to weave brooms for a living. "	"Grevillea stands loosen, fertilize, and humidify the soil, as well as reduce the presence of weeds such as Andropogon gryllus, making later cropping on those plots easier. Grevillea is thought to have the advantage of burning easily even when wet "	?	"The Grevillea tree's utility for wood fuel and associated profits was mentioned by eight of nine village leaders and 70 percent of the almost 300 villagers polled. It can also be used as a hedge, decorative, fencing material, or fallow shrub. It has melliferous flowers "	Safety and security	"Several elders anecdotally validated the significance of grevillea to livelihoods by stating that thievery levels have decreased as individuals have more basic revenue from grevillea. Given the significant contribution of The Grevillea trees to rural revenues, particularly in the last decade, they are currently mostly positive. These attitudes may alter in the future, whether as a result of ecological change (such as the continuous expansion of grevillea), societal change (such as lower markets for wood fuel as a result of the adoption of gas cook stoves), or a combination of the two "	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	"Many first-order perceptions by rural village residents up and down the east coast are summed up by one interviewee's remark that grevillea ""is like gold."" Because the tree is self-propagating and spreads over previously open fields, they see grevillea as a wonderful source of cash with minimal opportunity costs in terms of labor or land. Grevillea is mostly used as fuel and charcoal in Madagascar. When asked if there were any problematic invasive species to which they would like to draw our attention (described in local dialect as new plants that are rapidly expanding and causing problems), many interviewees stated that while grevillea was not a problem for them, Acacia mangium is best fit the definition, especially because it shaded out clove trees and rendered soils undetectable"	"Local actors' perceptions are heavily influenced by practical considerations about their livelihood. Although the major role of grevillea firewood and charcoal sales in livelihoods is largely positive, context plays a major role, and a number of disadvantages are also perceived, including the difficulty of removal, competition with crop and pasture land, and the respiratory health effects of involvement in charcoal production. "	No data	No data																																																																														
	"Esra Per, Fellow Chapter 3"	2021/11/7	"Kunwar, R.M., Baral, K., Paudel, P., Acharya, R.P., Thapa-Magar, K.B., Cameron, M., and Bussmann R.W. 2016. Land-Use and Socioeconomic Change, Medicinal Plant Selectionand Biodiversity Resilience in Far Western Nepal"	the Himalayan and Kailash Sacred Landscape in far western Nepal between 2011 and 2015. 	"In 12 villages, there were a total of 54 discussants (50 men and four women), 52 from upper caste groups and just two from lower caste underprivileged groups. Participant observations, discussions, walks in the woods, semi-structured interviews, and informal meetings were conducted to assess how socio-cultural changes have affected the survival of indigenous systems and local biodiversity when compared to previous studies "	"Ageratina adenophora and Cissampelos pareira, Ageratum conyzoides, Eulophia dabia, Persea odoratissima, and Moringa oleifera "	Spread	"In primary forests, 15 non-indigenous medicinal plant species were discovered. Non-native invasive plants have been introduced and used in the area for decades. When the districts' national (primary) forests were overexploited and community forests were promoted in 1992, the introduction of non-indigenous species accelerated in the study region"	Biodiversity loss	"Biodiversity loss and land use change: As primary forests become increasingly overexploited, indigenous species grow scarce, and sociocultural drivers of land-use change spread, the employment of non-indigenous and easily available species and more accessible habitats is becoming more common "	"Economic, Demographic "	"Demographic: Population growth is driving factor in the introduction of non-indigenous species in Far Western Nepal. Economic: Because of a manpower shortage, agricultural lands are left fallow, resulting in lower productivity and the spreading of non-indigenous species."	No data	"Non-indigenous species are increasingly gaining importance in local medicines due to their availability, often simple accessibility. Old-growth Primary forests are being overexploited, indigenous species are disappearing, traditional activities are being abandoned, and knowledge is dwindling"	"These plants have been determined to be medicinally important according to values of use, relevance, and collection. Because non-indigenous species and human-created landscapes are employed with caution and as a complement to indigenous medicinal systems, the entire process is seen as a kind of adaptation and a significant resource for ethnobotany."	No data	"Twelve species and products, largely found in remote and old-growth forests, have ceased to be traded by 2013 "	No data	No data	No data	Utilisation of invasive species	"Non-indigenous species are common in places close to human settlements, but their diversity decreases as one goes further away from home"	No data	No data	"For collection, all habitats were significant, although accessible habitats were preferred. Traditional methods of medicinal plant selection and collection from primary forests, which have decreased in size over time, are rapidly being replaced by simpler and less physically demanding methods"	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	"The indigenous medicine of far western Nepal is a patchwork of indigenous and non-indigenous practices. Nonindigenous species already make about 23% of the medicinal repertoire, with more introductions on the way."	The introduction of non-indigenous resources is aided by decreasing awareness of indigenous species 	No data	"The land-use shift surpassed the annual population growth in the districts (about 2%). Species introduction for specific objectives, first by indigenous people and afterward by diaspora communities, could be a powerful cause of indigenous knowledge system alteration"	A significant quantity of indigenous knowledge on plant resource usage is in danger of being lost due to changes in human population structure and sociocultural shift 	"Villagers, Himalayan and Kailash sacred landscpes"																																																																													
LB.3	"Ankila Hiremath, LA, Ch. 4"	04/07/2021 AH	Linders et al. 2020. The impact of invasive species on social-ecological systems: Relating supply and use of selected provisioning ecosystem services 	"Local communities in Baringo region (Kenya), Afar region (Ethiopia). 2016-2017"	"250 households in Baringo, Kenya; 253 households in Afar, Ethiopia. Ecological surveys, socio economic surveys, Prosopis mapping"	Prosopis juliflora 	Spread	"""Soon after its introduction, P. juliflora became invasive and now covers 1.3 million hectares in Afar alone (Shiferaw et al., 2019) and 19,000 hectares in Baringo (Mbaabu et al., 2019)."" (Linders et al. 2020, p. 3)"	Land-use and Sea-use change	"Most of the population is semi-nomadic pastoralits. Land use change to agriculture (along with increased population densities) had resulted in land degradation (esp. reduction in perennial grasses, herbs)."	"Science, technology, and knowledge"	"To halt land degradation, provide fuelwood, as a source of pods for fodder, to increase sustainability of livelihoods."	Increase in woody biomass with Prosopis cover	Decrease in herbaceous biomass with Prosopis cover	Income from wood increased.	Reduced fodder availability. Income from livestock decreased.	No data	No data	No data	No data	Replace reduced/missing resources 	Livestock movement out of community borders increased due to reduced fodder availability. 	"Kenya: Forty-eight percent of the population is below 15 years of age (Kenya National Bureau of Statistics 2010), and is not involved in charcoal making, thus each person produces an average of 5.4 bags of charcoal per week, as women are normally not involved in harvesting charcoal.h (Linders et al. 2020, p.9). Ethiopia: charcoal-making is prohibited in Ethiopia. "	No data	"""Income from wood increased from USD 5.7 to USD 197.3 in Ethiopia and from USD 16.3 to USD 381.2 in Kenya""c.""Average income from livestock decreased from USD 243.3 to USD 62.8 in Ethiopia and from USD 169.3 to 3.9 in Kenya. While total income was not significantly affected by Prosopis cover, there was a significant shift in income source, as indicated by a negative relationship between the percentage income derived from livestock sales and the percentage income derived from wood sales."" (Linders et al. 2020, p. 6)"	Material and immaterial assets	No data	Reduced availability of grazing resources	Resource tenure	No data	"Reduced access to grazing areas, fodder resources"	Intensifying tribal conflicts over grazing resources	No data	No data	No data	"gcProsopis transforms the social-ecological system to a wood-dominated system. Despite the decline of grassland availability, livestock remain important for the inhabitants, suggesting that income from charcoal cannot replace the cultural value of livestock and might currently increase vulnerability of livelihoods to droughts. A strategy to manage the Prosopis invasion, while keeping the benefits Prosopis has provided (Bekele et al., 2018), and the simultaneous restoration of grasslands is therefore urgently needed to increase resilience of livelihoods.h (Linders et al. 2020, p.9)"	No data	No data	No data	"gWhile use of Prosopis charcoal and pods was actively promoted in Kenya (Choge et al., 2007), there are no incentives to promote Prosopis utilization in Ethiopia (Bekele et al., 2018) .h (Linders et al. 2020, p.3)"	"Pastoralists, Baringo, Kenya"																																																																													
	"Hanieh Saeedi, Fellow chapter 2"	2021/7/9	"Lopez-Gomez et al 2014. Mayan diver-fishers as citizen scientists: detection and monitoring of the invasive red lionfish in the Parque Nacional Arrecife Alacranes, southern Gulf of Mexico"	"Parque Nacional Arrecife Alacranes, southern Gulf of Mexico, first lionfish detection in the Parque Nacional Arrecife Alacranes in 2010"	"Mayan lobster diver-fishers (30 divers), who participated voluntarily as citizen scientists in surveys"	"Red lionfish, Pterois volitans"	Introduction 	"Introduction (initial, early, intermediate, and advanced introduction).  On July 11,
2010, the first red lionfish was collected in the PNAA. no
fisher had observed a lionfish on the coral reefs of the
PNAA before 2009."	IAS	No data	"Science, technology, and knowledge"	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	"Social, spiritual and cultural relations"	No data	No data	Education/knowledge	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	Mayans																																																																													
AP.6	"Bharat B Shrestha, LA Ch. 6"	2021/12/7	"Luizza et al. 2016 Integrating local pastoral knowledge, participatory mapping, and species distribution modeling for risk assessment of invasive rubber vine (Cryptostegia grandiflora) in Ethiopiafs Afar region"	Afar community of Afar region located in north-eastern Ethiopia; April and May 2014  	Thirty-nine men and six women (aged between 18 and 50 years) pastoralist selected across seven villages located within the Amibara and Awash-Fentale districts. They constituted seven focus groups (on group in each village) with 5-10 informants in each group. Focus group discussion for the analysis of impacts of rubber vine and participatory mapping of its distribution; prediction of suitable habitats by Maxent modelling in Afar region; validation of model output by the informants.	Rubber vive (Cryptostegia grandiflora Roxb. ex R. Br) (Fam. Asclepiadaceae) ? A native of Madagascar	Establishment	Rubber vine first appeared in Awash river basin some 20 years ago; noticeable increase in cover of rubber vine in recent years; flooding in river brought seeds of native species in the past but the flood brings seeds of invasive species in recent time. 	"Land-use and Sea-use change, Climate change"	"gA number of pastoralists clearly noted the connections between all three issues, with drought facilitating the establishment of invasive plants, and large-scale agriculture development disturbing the land and providing novel habitat for these invaders through extensive irrigation ditches.h  "	Economic	"gA number of respondents argued that this recent phenomenon is in part because of the massive influx of large-scale government-owned sugar cane farms in the river valley. These monoculture industrial agriculture operations are water-intensive, requiring extensive irrigation ditch systems that follow the adjacent dirt roads. Many pastoralists believe these ditches are creating new habitat and seed dispersal systems for rubber vine, which is increasingly present in these recently disturbed areash"	gA few pastoralists went on to state that snakes and leopards particularly take advantage of rubber vine habitat corridors.h 	"gRubber vine kills native trees by growing up into their canopy, blocking their access to the sun and gchoking them,h in addition to inhibiting the establishment of grasses when growing in shrub form. As one respondent exclaimed, gWhere halemero grows, nothing else will!h The vine was said to have acute negative impacts on a number of native trees around the Awash River that are important to pastoral livelihoods. We catalogued eight endemic tree species that pastoralists identified as being threatened by rubber vine (alone or in concert with P. juliflora) and act as critical sources of firewoodh "	"gSome people use the plantfs milky latex sap as a livestock insecticide, applying it to insects that are attached to cattle. However, this is not widely practiced because, as a number of participants explained, the sap is also a skin irritant and will burn a person if any touches exposed skin.h "	"ggThe pastoralist way of life is changing,h one respondent declared. gWhen native species were plentiful,h the respondent added, gwe used to have cold air and plenty of water. Now it is reversed, invasive plants, hot air, and little water.hh  gThe sugar cane industry has caused many changes to vegetation. Indigenous plants have declined and new invasive species are increasing, including wola howla [Parthenium hysterophorus], halemero [Cryptostegia grandiflora], and weyane [Prosopis juliflora].h Other negative impacts included toxicity to livestock, increased threats of livestock predators, suppression of the regeneration of native species, reduced supply of wild edible foods. "	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	"gThese semistructured interviews revealed the new and growing threat of rubber vine, which is currently not listed as an alien invasive species in Ethiopia, and receiving limited attention by local and regional government agencies and nonprofit organizations working in the area. Participatory data collection and mapping with pastoralists revealed the detailed and highly accurate knowledge of local community members regarding rubber vine.h"	"The IPLC of the Afar region have notices degradation of ecosystems due to displacement of many native species with important provisioning (e.g. wild edible food, fire wood) to their livelihood. The IPLC also noticed direct impact of rubber vine to livestock due it toxicity. Reduced regeneration of many native species including tree species have been also noticed by the IPLC"	"The IPLC considered that the rubber vine is increasing rapidly, primarily due to drought [Climate change], construction of extensive irrigation channels to support large scale sugarcane farming by government [dispersal corridors], and increased anthropogenic disturbances due to sugarcane farming and other activities."	No data	"Afar pastoralists, Awash basin "																																																																													
	"Tatsiana Lipinskaya, Fellow, Chpt1"	10/07/2021 TL	"Luizza et al., 2016 - Integrating subsistence practice and species distribution modeling: assessing invasive elodeafs potential impact on Native Alaskan subsistence of Chinook salmon and whitefish"	"Native Alaskans - , geographically distinct cultural/linguistic domain - Inupiaq. Alaska. Since 1990 until August 2013"	"Native Alaskan representatives and 8 resource managers. Interview and observational data collection.
Only villages with a majority Native Alaskan population and survey data from 1990 and later were included in our analyses. Created a quantitative assessment of Chinook and whitefish subsistence harvests was created. "	Elodea Canadensis Michx. and E. nuttallii (Planch.) H. St. John (herein referred to collectively as elodea)	"Establishment, Establishment"	"from 2010 began to rapidly establish in lakes and slow-moving streams around Anchorage, Fairbanks, Cordova, and the Kenai Peninsula. To date, elodea have been discovered in twenty-one Alaskan water bodies"	"Climate change, Land-use and Sea-use change"	"Increased establishment risk due to climate change; Sea-use: introduction risk through motorized transportation (i.e., outboard motorboats and floatplanes) "	No data	No data	No data	"Potential threats include degrading fish habitat, displacing native flora and fauna, and decreasing flow rates and increasing sedimentation of water bodies; displaced an entire population of arctic grayling
"	No data	Potential threats include impeding boat travel and safe float plane operation	No data	Low Elodea management concern - Whitefish makes up 11 % of subsistence harvest. Limited pockets of high suitability predicted in areas with no recorded whitefish spawning and rearing sites	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	Moderate Elodea management concern (mid-century)- Shift from moderate to low suitability for much of the domain with the exception of pockets of high suitability in the south by mid-century	distinguish	No data	No data	No data																																																																														
	"Esra Per, Fellow Chapter 3 and Zenia Ruiz-Utilla  independent consultant"	"24/8/2021,  21/09/2021 ERC merged"	"Machekano et al., 2017, Diamondback Moth, Plutella xylostella (L.) in Southern Africa: Research Trends, Challenges and Insights on Sustainable Management Options "	Small-scale farmers in Southern Africa (based on different articles) . The paper does not specify any specific time or community	"Informants: gWe also analyse the perspectives of researchers, farmers, and agricultural extension agentsh . There is not a section with methods and is not clear in other parts of the paper. The authors did not specify how they searched and analyze the information"	"The diamondback moth (DBM), Plutella xylostella (L.) (Lepidoptera: Plutellidae). gThe DBM is the major, ubiquitous, and year-round insect pest hindering the economic production of brassica crops in SAh (Machekano et al., 2017, 2). gThe economic importance of DBM is derived from its exceptional pest status that originates from its genetic diversity, high and year-round abundance, high reproductive potential, high genetic elasticity, cosmopolitan distribution, multivoltinity, and continuous suppression of the pestfs natural enemies by synthetic pesticides [5,18,25] and possible survival failures by efficient natural enemies in the pestfs new invasion areash (Machekano et al., 2017, 2)."	Establishment	"In the article is not explicit the invasion stage but since this is a pest that can cause crop loss since 31% to 100% in Kenya and Botswana, we can consider that Plutella xylostella is well established. Due to P. xylostella is an insect and climate is an important variable that can change some biological activities as reproduction, distribution, and survival. Trends in front climate change indicate that the number of generations per year will increase; such scenario will carry more negative impacts."	Climate change	"""The diamondback moth (DBM), Plutella xylostella, is a global economic pest of brassicas whose pest status has been exacerbated by climate change and variability. If the life cycle synchronisation of the host and its parasitoids is disrupted as a result of global warming, the biological control capability of P. xylostella may be harmed. As the temperature rises, the time it takes to acquire the needed number of degree-days to complete the DBM life cycle decreases and increasing the number of generations every year. DBM activity was measured across a wide temperature range in laboratory tests. This could imply that DBM pest status in South Africa will likely worsen as a result of the present climate change projections. Natural enemies are wiped out by extreme temperatures Increased atmospheric carbon dioxide levels linked to global climate change may reduce the efficacy of biological control agents against DBM."""	No data	No data	No data	no data	No data	"The DBM is the major, ubiquitous, and year-round insect pest hindering the economic production of brassica crops in SA. DBM damage-induced losses and management issues are proving problematic for small-scale farmers. Due to a lack of access to sustainable control measures, small-scale farmers in Southern Africa are unable to cope with the pest's growing strain.In Kenya, an estimated 31% loss has been reported [28]. If uncontrolled, losses of up to 100% are possible [5,29], as has been reported in Botswana ([30]; and from personal observation during fieldwork in 2014 and 2015. There is little knowledge on the actual loss data of brassicas due to DBM in SA countriesh (Machekano et al., 2017, 2)."	No data	"Chemical: gsurvey baseline results show that between 75% and 100% of farmers in SA totally rely on chemical insecticidesh (Machekano et al., 2017, 4). gBrassica farmers possess at least two to six different insecticidesh (Machekano et al., 2017, 4). These farmers, by global standards, employ the widest range of chemicals, the highest application rates, and the highest application frequency. The application frequency varies from once every three weeks to three times every week. "	"Local Constraints: Farmes uses insecticides to control and manage P. xylostella and the constraints are related with this, for example gusing inappropriate chemicals, incorrect dosages, and wrong application timing and targeting, to non-calibrated or poorly maintained and defective (often leaky) application equipmenth (Machekano et al., 2017, 5). Local Effectiveness: Due to bad practices in the use of insecticide as a home-made grass brushes/brooms only 35%-50% of sprayed chemical reach the target organism; also, there are reports that the uses of fungicides to control insects, expired and adulterated pesticides. The above have produced the increase of resistance and suppression of biological control organisms. Broader contraints: The main constraints to effective DBM management are reliance on broad-spectrum insecticides, the lack of insecticide resistance management solutions, climate change, inadequate research attention, poor regional research collaboration and coordination, and a lack of effective policy support units. Lack of locally developed packages, a lack of stakeholders' understanding of the concept, limited alternatives to chemical control, a lack of biocontrol knowledge, climate mismatch between biocontrol agents' origin and release sites, and a lack of research expertise and funding have all hampered IPM adoption. For optimizing the efficacy of biological control, there is a scarcity of published information on the climate-related coevolution of DBM and its natural enemies. "	"Brassica vegetables are one of the most important crops in south Africa, principally due to is an important inexpensive source of vitamins and minerals and its fast growing. The production and demand of brassica vegetables has increased in the last years even at global level. However, P. xylostella has produced major loss of these crops (between 31- 100%). For that reason, farmers use principally pesticides to eliminate this insect.Because natural enemies for DBM biological control are abundant in Southern Africa, the ecological impact of widespread pesticide usage, particularly on these biological control agents, is a major concern. As a result, a type of IPM that focuses on reducing pesticide use and promoting selective soft insecticides as its basic tenets is the most important step in lowering pesticide burden on the environment "	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	"Health (mental and physical), Health (mental and physical), Material and immaterial assets"	No data	"Health (mental and physical): Farmer are affected with the excessive use of herbicides Agriculture:
gThis uncontrolled misuse and overuse of insecticide was reported to have significantly contributed to the increased resistance and suppression of potential biological control agents [17,18,25,30]h (Machekano et al., 2017, 5)."	Cultural institutions	No data	"Cultural institutions: gUrban consumers are biased to aesthetically damage-free vegetables and their demand for such produce cannot be ignored as a driver to intensive insecticide use by the farmers [14,42]. For small-scale farmers, the market is typified by vegetable vendors under make-shift stalls in urban and peri-urban roadsides. These vendors are an important market link between small-scale farmers and the urban market as they not only determine the market price for different levels of pest damage but are also directly linked to consumers [2]. This vendor market, just like urban supermarkets, has the capacity to influence price and quality; it triggers the excessive use of pesticides as farmers compete to produce and supply shiny, damage-free, equalityf brassicas to satisfy the emarket standardsh (Machekano et al., 2017, 3)."	No data	"To respond to the P. xylostella impacts, farmers use herbicides. There are a great unknowledge about this kind of control and frequently they use this in wrong manner. This behavior has been developed due to perceptions and demands from urban consumers."	"Not sure if IPLC are involved. But, there are various organizations in SA that can focus their activities on the agriculture. For example, the Southern African Development Community (SADC) (known as SADCC then), Southern African Centre for Cooperation in Agricultural Research (SACCAR), Centre for Coordination of Agricultural Research and Development in Southern Africa (CCARDESA). The main activities of this institutions were coordinate regional research, align agricultural research policies and priorities, identify constraints, promote research projects, encourage regional sharing and utilization of scientific and technical information, farmer training and pest management."	No data	"Despite the region's lengthy experience with the insect pest problem, the findings suggest that research in Southern Africa (SA) is substantially confined. Climate change will continue to inflict damage on Sub-Saharan Africa. DBM populations are highly unlikely to drop due to physiological stress associated with high or low-temperature situations under current climatic estimates in South Africa. Researcher: gWe propose research on sustainable climate-smart agriculture and the selection of compatible integrated pest management (IPM) components that provide effective management of the DBM under small-scale farmers in SA, in the context of current and projected climate change scenariosh. IPM involves the use of different control methods against pests gthis includes, but is not limited to, seasonal cropping (synchronised cropping calendar to minimize host plant availability), crop rotation, intercropping with non-host plants, enabling conducive environments for biological control agents, legislative plant host control (dead periods), the use of resistant varieties, and the judicious and minimal use (e.g., spot application) of environmentally benign insecticides (see [82])h (Machekano et al., 2017, 9). The conceptual framework involves participation of researcher, farmers, government and market."	Pest for agriculture 	Small-scale farmers in Southern Africa are struggling to deal with rising strain 	No data	No data																																																																														
	"Andy Sheppard, CLA, Ch. 5"	2021/7/13	"Maclean, K., Robinson, C., Bock, E. and Rist, P., 2021. Reconciling risk and responsibility on Indigenous country: bridging the boundaries to guide knowledge sharing for cross-cultural biosecurity risk management in northern Australia. Journal of Cultural Geography, pp.1-23."	"CS1: Girringun, based in Cardwell, northeast Queensland 2013
CS2: Northern Australia Quarantine Strategy representatives from several Indigenous Ranger groups in Northern Australia 2016"	"Indigenous community and indigenous rangers. Interviews and talking to local authorities. CS1 Participatory mapping workshop held at the Girringun premises with the Girringun Rangers, some Girringun Elders, staff from the Girringun nursery (n= 19), and via semi-structured interviews conducted with Girringun staff involved with an outbreak of myrtle rust in the Girringun nursery in 2013 (n= 7). CS2 telephone interview. They were provided with a project information sheet; a free, prior informed consent form; and semi-structured interview questions. "	"Invasive plants, past and diseases and new species detection that could pose a threat defined by risk assessment "	Introduction 	Both newly arrived and established 	Natural drivers	Community activities and movement of plants and animals and natural dispersal 	Economic	Multiple as this study considers many types of biosecurity threat 	None	Negative increasing on ILK through threatening key ecosystems and natural resources as ILK sources 	Community much more aware of the threats and conseqeunces 	Psychosocial harmful from working on esick countryh exacerbated when access to country is restricted. Undervaluing of ILK.  Impacts of large infestations on country. 	"Informal and formal surveillance,, incidental monitoring, "	management activities as part of caring for country 	Resource uncertainty can be short term affecting long-term management effectiveness and affect livelihoods. Management of sacred sites requires culturally prescribed management. Surveillance is effective  	Fee for service arrangements with Gov. Healing sick country 	Changes in wild resource systems	Loss of integrity of culturally important landscapes  	Incidental surveillance and formal fee-for-service surveillance 	Government funding & employment 	None	Material and immaterial assets	Builds up understanding on effective biosecurity surveillance and management  	None	Education/knowledge	Raised indigenous understanding of impacts of biosecurity threats to country  	Loss of key cultural resource and bush foods 	None	Elders and rangers 	Supported by government and regional/indigenous councils but they donft value ILK enough 	Scientific and ILK	Good and effective surveillance limiting future impacts through early management. Better understanding in the local community and place-based knowledge 	Well understood in a cultural and on country context in terms of impact to resources like bush tucker 	Knowledge and observations used to inform decision making 	Good understanding of direct drivers used to inform decision making	Good understanding of multiple negative impacts and that the response should align to the risk (not over-kill) to avoid affecting livelihoods  																																																																														
TK.1	"Hanieh Saeedi, Fellow chapter 2"	2021/7/9	"Macnaughton et al 2015. gPaiche reigns!h species introduction and
indigenous fisheries in the Bolivian Amazon"	"Madre de Dios and Beni basins in northern Bolivia,  indigenous Tacana community "	A total of 16 men and one woman were interviewed between August 2011 and June 2013.	"Arapaima cf. gigas (gpaicheh), native to the middle and lower portions of the Amazon Basin but is not native to the Bolivian Amazon"	Introduction 	"Paiche was introduced to the upper Amazon headwaters of Peru in the 1960s , and first appeared in the Bolivian fisheries approximately 20 yearsago"	Land-use and Sea-use change	"It is not yet known if, or how, paiche affects the native fish communities in the region. The paiche invasion is occurring in the context of a rapidly changing social environment of land reforms, increasing urban and rural populations and expanding road access in Boliviafs northern Amazon region."	"Socio-cultural, Economic, Politics, governance and institutions"	No data	No data	An unprecedented increase in paiche fishing and an accompanying decline in the abundance of native species were observed	Increased the commercial fisheries and the income for the indiginous communities	No data	No data	fAn evolving local organization adapting to a changing resource base and external pressures has been able to demonstrate strengths and deficits in expanding community-based fishery management and fisheries practices	No data	"The paiche fishery in Bolivia, perhaps most advanced in Trinidacito, has shown some evolutionary steps reflecting the Holling cycles of resilience thinking. These steps have been fostered by community cohesion, created through conflicts over access and the distribution of benefits, but tempered by historical social capital from the rubber-tapping era of both positive organizational capacity and fiscally oriented monitoring mechanisms that vary in effectiveness"	"Manage invasive species as a resource , Changes in livestock systems, Utilisation of invasive species, Changes in fishing systems"	No data	"fThe current Trinidacito model is an interesting example of a single-species commercial fishery, despite high diversity of native species in the region. Currently, there is clear evidence that Trinidacito fishers are targeting paiche exclusively for their commercial fishery, with occasional opportunistic capture of other species for subsistence or sometimes for sale. This represents a significant shift in their fishery, and its implications for fishing effort, resource sustainability, or long term resilience are not clear. There is insufficient data available to determine the abundance of the native fish species in the lagoons surrounding Trinidacito and whether this has been affected by the paiche or fishing pressuref"	No data	No data	"Safety and security, Social, spiritual and cultural relations"	"ffThe regional fisheries picture changed dramatically from the 1990s onward, due in large part to new fisheries based on the introduced paiche, currently making up over 60 % of total landings (by weight) for the Riberalta region, 40 % of indigenous commercial landings in the region, and 82 % of landings in Trinidacito. Paiche may also represent a number of new threats to the native fish resourcesff "	No data	"Education/knowledge, Cultural institutions, Social stratification, Governance institutions , Resource tenure"	No data	No data	"ffConflict over access, has triggered stronger levels of community organization that undoubtedly helped the development of the community overall, highlighting the potential positive spin-offs of conflict as a stimulus for change and improved resilience"	No data	"ffThe evolution of the local fishery management system in Trinidacito has had several stages, responding to triggers from external pressures (conflicts with outside fishers and new species), developing within a changing environment of regulatory authority, and grounded in both historical formal relationships and local practice"	Local and community knowledge	"ffInterviewees also expressed concern about overfishing and waste (such as discarded by-catch for species such as corvina), and are asking for more restrictive management, both for sustainability and to reduce waste, but are not necessarily practicing conservation in their fishing methodsff "	"Introduced species are considered one of the prime factors that contribute to the decline of native species and significant negative impacts on fishery-related livelihoods global, IPLC distinguish between the endemic and invasive species, they know that this is an invasive species
ffIntroduced species are considered one of the prime factors that contribute to the decline of native species and significant negative impacts on fishery-related livelihoods globallyff "	The community value the IAS as a source of commercial fishing	No data	No data	"Tacana people, Northern Bolivia"																																																																													
MM.6	"Romina Fernandez, Fellow Chpt.4"	06/07/2021 RF	Madegowda and Rao 2014-The Traditional Ecological Knowledge of Soliga Tribe on Eradication of Lantana Camara and their Livelihood	"Soliga tribes, Biligiri Rangaswamy Temple Wildlife Sanctuary, India, 2011."	"gThe Soligas belong to a gatherers community. Later on Soligas started agriculture activities in the foresthcgA total of 85 Soligas from Yarakana gadde colony, Seege betta Podu, Kalyani Podu and Manjigundi Podu were engaged in lantana camara removing work in 2011 under MGNREGA in B.R. Hills. Out of 85 Soligas 30 per cent of 35 respondents were chosen for the study""/interview"	Lantana camara	spread	"gLantana camara spread all over India as well as in Biligiri Rangaswamy Temple (hereafter BRT) wildlife sanctuary. Lantana camara increased dramatically from 1997 to 2008"""	Land-use and Sea-use change	ornamental plant	No data	No data	No data	gThe lantana weed in BRT Wildlife Sanctuary areas started spreading 50 years ago and the native species started to slowly decrease. Due to this animals were facing lack of fodderh	no data	"gThe Soligas also felt the loss of NTFPs, tubers, fruits, and green vegetables for their livelihood due to the growth of Lantana weed"""	No data	"gFor the past two years few methods have been applied to remove lantana in BRT Wildlife Sanctuary by Soligas like, cutting the lantana, keeping the lantana weeds in different places, uprooting the lantana weeds and setting fire to lantana weeds when it is driedhc gThe majority of the respondents or Soligas suggested, that is 34.3 per cent of the opinions, that lantana has to be removed continuously for five years. 25.7 per cent of respondents said lantana has to be removed for four years continuously in the same place. 14.3 per cent of mention three and 14.5 per cent of respondent mentions six yearsh"	No data	"Soliga tribes: To obtain employment, protect the forest diversity and their agriculture landsForest Department: Conserve the biodiversity and provide employment to Soliga tribes"	Managing invasive species as a resource and Conserving or protecting native species	gMGNREGA aims at enhancing the livelihood security of people in rural areas by guaranteeing hundred days of wage-employment in a financial year to a rural household who volunteer to do unskilled manual workhch The Forest Department permitted the Soligas to remove the Lantana under the MGNREGA in 2009 and again in 2011 provided opportunities in two ways: on one hand providing employment to Soliga tribes and on the other hand helping with the forest conservationh  	gPresently MGNREGA provides employment for 100 days per family per year. The respondents feel that the number of days should be increased in MGNREGA scheme. Only 100 days of daily wage earning is not sufficient to lead a family life hence there is a need to increase the number of working days in a yearh 	"""65.7 per cent of respondents mentioned that the wages under the MGNREGA should be increased up to Rs 176 to Rs 200 per day per personh "	Agriculture threat: gThe wild animals are facing fodder insecurity and are migrating to agriculture lands for fodderh	Material and immaterial assets	No data	"gSoligas have also lost some of the consumption products like tubers, leaves, fruits, seeds and honey, who have decreased in the foresth "	Settlements / land-use	No data	g68.6 per cent of respondents mentioned that lantana weed increased in last 20 to 30 years in the forest. 20 per cent of respondents said lantana has increased in last 31 to 40 years. The lantana has increased much more in the last 31 to 40 years and 20-30 years as mentioned by the respondents. Due to the invasion of this species the native flora has decreased. Now the lantana weed has slowly spread all over the forest areas and it has affected the wildlife and Soligas livelihoodh 	No data	"g60 per cent of Soligas said that lantana should be removed in one place continuously for up to four to five years to be able to control the lantana spreading to other areashch Under the MGNREGA scheme Soligas were first cutting the lantana and keeping the lantana weed in different places, setting fire to lantana weed when it dried and uprooting the roots of the lantana weed. This method is currently practiced by the Soligas in BRT Wildlife Sanctuaryh "	gThe Soligas were approached by the Forest Department and district administrative authority of Chamarajanagar for employment under the MGNREGAh	No data	gSoligas have mentioned a number of activities to be carried out to conserve the forest and to enable the Soligas to a better livelihood under the MGNREGAhch Most of them mentioned that Lantana eradication and planting local plants (and thus automatically providing animal fodder) are related conservation activities that could be carried out under the MGNREGA scheme. This will help the native species to grow back in the forest and secure the livelihood of the Soligas in BRT Wildlife Sanctuaryh	No data	"gSoligas mentioned that Lantana is spreading very fast in the forest and it affects the wild animals, native species, as well as the livelihood of the Soligash "	g20 per cent of respondents said lantana has increased in last 31 to 40 years. The lantana has increased much more in the last 31 to 40 years and 20-30 years as mentioned by the respondentsh 	gSoligas said that in the future the whole BRT Wildlife Sanctuary ecosystem will change and the tiger and wild animals face more food and fodder problemsh 	"Soliga tribe, Biligiri Tangaswamy Template Wildlife Sanctuary"																																																																													
	"Esra Per, Fellow Chapter 3"	2021/11/7	"Mafongoya, P., Gubba, A., Moodley, V., Chapoto, D., Kisten, L. and Phophi, M. 2019. Climate Change and Rapidly Evolving Pests and Diseases in Southern Africa. In: New Frontiers in Natural Resources Management in Africa"	"in South Africa's nine provinces and Zimbabwe's five agro-ecological zones, during the 2014?2016 growing season "	"Key informants and focus groups; the farmers, In each agro-ecological region, 50 people participated in the study. A nationwide pest and disease survey was done. Infested crops and surrounding weeds with virus-like symptoms were collected from fields and greenhouses for analysis. Quantitative and qualitative research methodologies were used to gather data from respondents through a survey questionnaire "	"the invasive leaf miner Tuta absoluta, Aphids, whiteflies, red spider mites, thrips. Some pests are vectors of destructive viral pathogens.  Whitefly-transmitted torrado, crini, begomoviruses, and Tomato torrado virus (ToTV), Bemisia sp. and Trialeurodes sp., The onion thrips Thrips tabaci (Lindeman) and the western flower thrips Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergande) "	Spread	"As temperatures rise, plants are able to complete their lifecycles rapidly, allowing weeds to colonize previously unoccupied areas and thereby expand their geographic range. The majority of the farms assessed  were infested with a variety of weed species, which were inhabited by significant populations of insect pests and disease vectors that displayed virus-related symptoms"	"Natural drivers, Climate change"	"Natural drivers: In commercial and smallholder farming areas, various weed species played an important role in the epidemiology of the vector-borne disease (Mafongoya et al 2019, 41). Climate change: Climate change will facilitate their development in previously unsuitable environments.. C4 plants make up the majority of the world's weeds. As a result of the warmer temperatures, these weeds may grow. Weeds have the additional advantage of being better at using CO2."	Economic	Economic: Increased worldwide trade in plants and plant products promotes the introduction and spread of exotic pests from one region to another 	No data	"Negative: Climate change's impact on exotic pest incursions and globalization's impact on crop protection has increased the level of uncertainty about future crop-pest-climate interactions, as well as the frequency and amplitude of climatic variations. Insects negatively impact crops by feeding on plants; however, some species transmit viral diseases that cause physiological problems such as stunting and fruit deformation, flower abscission, necrosis, and chlorophyll reduction, resulting in crop losses."	No data	"Harmful: The majority of farming communities in South Africa had heavy pest pressure, low yields, and low profit margins. Drought-stricken Zimbabwean crops were overrun by a slew of pests and diseases, destroying the country's agricultural sector. Increased biotic and abiotic stress may have exacerbated crop sensitivity, resulting in the establishment of diseases like Tomato Torrado Virus (ToTV)."	"For the two countries, preliminary risk maps for possible pest and disease outbreaks were prepared. "	African governments have to begin reporting new and emerging pests and diseases that impact major crops 	"Despite the fact that climate change is predicted to have a significant impact on Southern African agriculture by affecting agricultural field stability, scientific knowledge on new pests is either absent or in its beginnings "	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	"Despite the fact that farming practices may have a considerable impact on insect populations, the underlying issues behind global climate change are not fully understood "	No data	Farmers have seen an increase in the number of insect pests 	"As climatic circumstances grow more favorable, climate change is anticipated to accelerate weed infestations and dissemination. Minor temperature fluctuations can have disastrous consequences for natural and agricultural ecosystems, perhaps resulting in an ecological cascade."	"Short winters, increased temperatures, and long dry spells were thought to be the reason for the pest population "	"Pest outbreaks and disease epidemics may be accelerated in part or entirely as a result of anthropogenic activity, unexpected environmental changes or extreme weather occurrences, pesticide usage, and a general lack of awareness"	Most farmers (59%) across all the natural regions in Zimbabwe had the perception that there were emerging insect pests as a result of climate change while 37% strongly agreed that the climate was changing. 	No data	"Farmers, 9 provinces of South africa, Zimbabwe 5 agroecological zones"																																																																													
PP.2	"Ellen Ryan-Colton, fellow CH4"	14/07/2019 ERC	"Maldonaldo Andrade 2019. The paradox of culturally useful invasive species: Chusptale (Typha Domingensis) crafts of Lake Patzcuaro, Mexico"	" Pur?pecha people, Lake Patzcuaro of Michoac?n, Mexico"	"7 men and women, in the town of Ihuatzio: 3 artisans (men), one craft seller (woman), and 3 local people. Semi-structured interviews and field methods for data collection and mapping"	Typha domingensis (Southern cattail) ? Chuspatel in local language	Establishment	Established ? Area of occupancy has increased since earlier studies. Around most of the Lake now. 	No data	No data	Socio-cultural	"Economic: tourism demand for artisanal crafts that typify indigenous culture creates demand for IPLCfs woven products, made from the Typha as well as the native bulrush. Socio-cultural: desire to stay in local area and continue cultural tradition of weaving as a livelihood for families and local community. Therefore tIPLC responded and adapted to using the Typha in their products. "	Habitat for an endemic snake	Could outcompete the native southern bulrush	No data	"Typha is used for weaving, in a similar manner to the native bulrush, and is sometimes preffered as it is more economical to buy the raw material (more abundant), more efficient to weave (wider leaf, doesnt crack) and produces a broader range of crafts (wider leaf).  So it is a basis for liveliohoods. Also, since weaving practices are maintained, ILPC culture and language are retained and passed down through the generations.  "	No data	"Mechanical control by local authorities and hired labour, just in areas with high tourism visitation. "	"If the Typha is cut as a control method, its regrowth is not as strong, which makes it less desiarble for crafts. "	Keep the area clear for tourists. 	Utilisation of invasive species	"Yes IPLC artisans have adapted and now use Typha as a resource for weaving, as well as the native southern bulrush species. Some artisans even prefer Typha over the native bulrush and it can be more economical to buy from those who harvest the reeds, proudce a greater range of products with wider weave, and is faster to weave with"	Labour organisation has remainded the same even with the IAS resource -Men do the weaving and pass this done from grandfather and father to son. The weaving technique doesnft change. Women are involved in selling the crafts. 	same techniques and materials used for the IAS resource as the native resource. 	"A broader range of artisanal crafts (including those with wider weave pattern) and more effecient and economical weaving is being achieved using the invasive reed Typha instead of the native bulrush, although the native is still used for finer weave patterns. "	"Social, spiritual and cultural relations, Material and immaterial assets"	"Social, cultural relations: Keeping the weaving as a viable livelihood keeps IPLC culture and language passed down through generations. Material assets: Maintains a viable livelihood in their home villages, rather than having to move away for other jobs"	No data	Cultural institutions	"By the IAS Typha susitaining the weaving industry, Purepecha Culture and native language gTarascoh isr etained and passed down and actually promoted as a value that attracts tourism to the area ? as tourists come to see intact indigenous culture. Other indigenous groups rely on the woven products from this particular town to attract tourists, which they sell at different neighboring villages (still indigenous villages). So an overall benefit in GQL to the community is to have cultural and economic stability due to adapting to the new resource, which is better than the native resource for their main activity. "	No data	No data	No data	"Indigenous people are doing the harvesting, selling the material to weavers, weaving and then selling the products to vendors [all of these seem to be Purepecha people from the paper description]. 
They rely on tourists from different cultural background to come and buy the artisanal crafts and support their livelihoods. Outsiders are also fascinated by the indigenous culture and see the woven products as cultural icons
"	No data 	No data	No data	"The Typha is vital to their livelihoods, supporting them to weave in a more economic and effeicient way, and produce a bigger range of products. Weaving allows the continuation of language and culture passed down through the generations. The products support the communities identity and the economic livelihoods of many neighbouring villages"	No data	"Yes have adapted to using and relying on the Typha, and still using the native species as well."	"Purepecha people, Lake Patzcuaro"																																																																													
LB.4	"Romina Fernandez, Fellow Chpt.4"	28/06/2021 RF	"Mbaabu et al. 2019-Spatial Evolution of Prosopis Invasion and its Effects on LULC and Livelihoods in Baringo, Kenya"	Marigat subregion in Baringo country. October 2015 and June 2016	"Satellite imagery.
gField reference data were collected in the field between October 2015 and June 2016hchThis study focuses on a period between 1988?2016, for which Landsat satellite data with a spatial resolution of 30m were availableh 
"	"Prosopis spp., Mesquite, eMathengef or ePromif"	spread	gOur findings suggest that Prosopis invasion in our study area follows a regular and gradual pattern of increaseh 	No data	"gIn the 1980s, Prosopis juliflora (Sw.) DC., Prosopis pallida (Willd.), and Prosopis chilensis (Molina) Stuntz were planted in Baringo Countyh "	No data	No data	"""Prosopis was introduced in 31 locations in the study area  to alleviate fuelwood scarcity and to rehabilitate heavily overgrazed drylandsh "	"""high densities of Prosopis (>50% canopy cover) have been reported to suppress grass growth and reduce understory species diversity"""	Prosopis provide shade and its pods served as fodder for livestock	"""the local communities have been losing land-cover classes that form part of their key livelihood support system, such as grasslands and irrigated croplands, at an alarming rate"" ""Prosopis invasion had intensified, and was perceived by the pastoralists as the cause of the dwindling grasslands for their livestock"""	No data	"""the communities were encouraged to utilize Prosopis, which was also regarded as a way of managing Prosopis invasionhc""the government began a sensitization program through which the affected communities were trained on Prosopis management by manual or physical removal and reseeding the cleared areas with grass species"""	"gthe adoption of the emanagement by utilizationf approach promoted by the Kenyan government has not been effective in curtailing the further spread of Prosopis. On the contrary, utilization results in the coppicing of multiple Prosopis stems from the harvested stem, which creates impenetrable thickets and fuels the further spread of Prosopis through multiplied seed production by coppiced stemsh"	"Pastoralists: To maintain the grasslands for their livestock
Farmers: to maintain their crops
"	"Utilization of invasive species, Changes in livestock systems"	"Utilization of invasive species: gthe communities were encouraged to utilize Prosopis, which was also regarded as a way of managing Prosopis invasion""       Changes in livestock systems: gInvasion into the grasslands has significantly reduced available fodder""...""high-density Prosopis cover impedes accessibility to water points for people and livestock, and limits livestock mobility to grazing areas"	No data	No data	gInvasion into the grasslands has significantly reduced available fodderh 	Material and immaterial assets and Freedom of choice or action	No data	"Material and immaterial assets:
 gInvasion into the grasslands has significantly reduced available fodder, because high densities of Prosopis (>50% canopy cover) have been reported to suppress grass growth and reduce understory species diversityh                      Freedom of choice or action: "" high-density Prosopis cover impedes accessibility to water points for people and livestock, and limits livestock mobility to grazing areas"""	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	"Kenyan government- gThe government began a sensitization program through which the a
ected communities were trained on Prosopis management by manual or physical removal and reseeding the cleared areas with grass species"""	No data	"gIn order to achieve the sustainable management of Prosopis and reverse its adverse impacts manifested in the loss of ecosystem services and livelihood to the local communities, we suggest that this species be targeted with an integrated and coordinated management strategy"""	No data	No data	No data	No data	"Pastoralists, small farmers, Baringo, Kenya"																																																																													
	"Esra Per, Fellow Chapter 3"	2021/11/7	"McElwee, P. 2009. Reforesting gbare hillsh in Vietnam: Social and environmental consequences of the 5 million hectare reforestation program. "	"in Vietnam classified as ""bare hills"" (doi troc)and ""wastelands"" (dat trong), the colony of Cochinchina, in rural areas of Ha Tinh provincein 2000-2001"	"A research was undertaken on the impact of forest rehabilitation on local livelihoods. Two standardized surveys were conducted: one on fuel wood consumption, in which 200 households in 19 distinct villages were questioned, and another on income and forestproduct dependency, in which 104 households in five key villages were interviewed "	Eucalyptus and acacia (mono-crop exotic tree plantations) 	Spread	Mono-crop exotic tree plantations were planted in place of native flora in the bare hills	Land-use and Sea-use change	"Land use change: Natural regeneration of degraded fields has been ignored in many locations in favor of artificial plantations of extremely quickly, typically exotic trees. Although the 327 Program resulted in an increase in tree planting, it was criticized for relying mainly on alien trees like eucalyptus and acacia rather than regionally valued and versatile tree species."	Economic	Economic: Diverse sources of non-timber forest products are being replaced with monocrop exotic tree plantations as a result of the reforestation project's concentration on establishing new plantations rather than promoting native species.	No data	Negative: Native plants that had previously been located on bare hills were cleaned and removed when seedlings were planted for exotic trees.	"Beneficial: The only source of income for most households was the reforested trees, not the harvesting of native species. Exotic trees had better prices in other parts of Vietnam near paper mills, but they were not commercially valuable for construction."	Harmful: The bare slopes were particularly valuable to impoverished people and women who harvested a variety of non-timber forest products there 	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	"Citizens could get 20-year renewable tenure rights on land for annual crops and 50-year rights by basically privatized land beginning in 1993, thanks to a new Land Law "	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	"To date, re-greening efforts have been characterized by significant unfairness in the allocation of private properties for reforestation. This could have undesirable long-term social, environmental, and economic consequences, especially for the poor "	No data	"If this plantation growth continues to overlook the demands of NTFP users, particularly impoverished households and women, the repercussions will almost certainly be disastrous. "	"Some observers have suggested that ""focusing on replanting gives job security to Forest Department staff and enables them to make profits on the sale of seedlings, which is one reason regeneration has been disadvantaged"" "	No data	"Chochinchina, rural Ha Tinh villagers"																																																																													
	"M. IKEGAMI, LA Chapter 4"	20210714	"McGarry et al. 2005. A Rapid assessment of effects of invasive species on human livelihoods, especially of the rural poor"	"PP: the village of Tidbury (3238.6'S & 2639.5'E), in the Kat River valley, Mpofu district of the former Ciskei homeland. 
BW: Catha village is situated in the Amatola municipality in what was the former homeland of the Ciskei, approximately 20 km from Keiskammahoek (3235.3'S & 2707.4'E)."	"PP: Household interviews were conducted randomly within 24 households who were available during the short period of this study. (P10)  The stakeholder interviews consisted of informal discussions with other land users around the village. This included two farmers (a cattle farmer and a citrus farmer), an agricultural extension officer and a Nature Reserve manager (P11)
 BW: Household interviews were conducted randomly within 30 households who were available during the short period of this study. (P20)  The stakeholder interviews consisted of informal discussions with other land users, around the villages. At Catha Village, the Participatory Forest Management Committee (PFM), two tribal headmen, the oldest resident and a forestry official were interviewed  (P21) 
 The data collection process for this study consisted of replicate, qualitative household interviews, workshops with specific user groups, interviews with different stakeholders, and density estimates in different areas of invasion of Prickly Pear..
PP : Household interviews were conducted randomly within 24 households who were available during the short period of this study.  Discussions with major stakeholders.  The workshops were conducted after the household and stakeholder interviews. The Point Centred Quarter (PCQ) method was used to quantify the abundance of the IAS. (P11)
BW: Household interviews were conducted randomly within 30 households who were available during the short period of this study. Discussions with major stakeholders.  The workshops were conducted after the household and stakeholder interviews. The Point Centred Quarter (PCQ) method was used to quantify the abundance of the IAS. (P21)"	"PP: Prickly Pear (Opuntia ficus-indica), known in Xhosa as itdlofiya, is an invasive, exotic cactus that occurs widely throughout the Eastern Cape (as well as every other province in South Africa). (P8)
Jointed Cactus (Opuntia aurantiaca) (P17)
BW: Black Wattle (Acacia mearnsii)"	Spread	"BW: PP It grew prolifically in the Eastern Cape and large, impenetrable Prickly Pear thickets grew within agricultural fields and grazing lands, smothering the land upon which people relied. Measures were then taken to remove the plant. (P9)
BW: Wattle arrived in South Africa in the 19th century, along with other exotic trees, where they were grown in plantations to accommodate the lack of readily available fast growing timber, and bark for the tanning industry (le Maitre et al. 2002). From these plantations invasions of pine species (Pinus), Eucalyptu sand other wattle species (Acacia) have left many areas surrounding the plantations coated in a monoculture blanket of young pioneering alien forests. 
PP: The density of Prickly Pear around the homesteads and abandoned fields was 3.4 stems per 100 m2 which was comparable to the density of the more distant populations in the communal lands. They used to also harvest from another large population to the north, but they no longer have access since
BW: This Black Wattle forest is not managed and is believed to be increasing in density every year. Young Black Wattle plants can be seen in scattered densities in grazing fields and ploughed fields.(P22)"	No data	No data	"Economic, Economic"	"Economic: it became a major source of seasonal employment, gOpuntia allowed blacks and poor whites to elude wage labour for half the year by harvesting and selling the fruit croph.(P9)"	No data	No data	"Beneficial PP: The majority of the villagers used Prickly Pear (Table 3); 23 out of the 24 households interviewed. Of these, 14 collected the fruit that they needed, two purchased Prickly Pear, and seven both collected and purchased the fruit.  Prickly Pear was also used to make wine, locally called iQilika. (P14)
Beneficial PP: Only two people said that Prickly Pear had a cultural value, but they were unwilling to elaborate, other than saying it had a relationship with the spirits. (P14)
Beneficial BW: Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (DWAF) has commercial pine and Black Wattle plantations which provide local people with employment.
Beneficial BW: Collection of Black Wattle at Catha was high, with 29 out of the 30 households using Black Wattle, with 24 people collecting their own supplies, and only five purchasing Black Wattle (Table 9). (P22)
Beneficial BW: All the people interviewed claimed they were using Black Wattle because it was located reasonably close by and that there are restrictions on using indigenous species as they were under governmental control (P23)
Beneficial BW: The Catha inhabitants did not commonly view the Black Wattle as a cultural resource; however 26.7 % claimed they used it to build abakweta huts for young male initiates, for their coming of age ritual and circumcision camps. (P24)"	"Harmful BW: The two headmen interviewed at Catha felt that Black Wattle should be removed, as its current densities were creating severe problems in grazing lands and fields. (P25)"	No Data	"PP At Tidbury village 91.6 % of people wanted Prickly Pear at the highest densities (P15)
JC: they had decided to try and eradicate it. They had collected as much Jointed Cactus as they could and then burnt it. (P17)
BW: The two headmen interviewed at Catha felt that Black Wattle should be removed, as its current densities were creating severe problems in grazing lands and fields. (P25)"	JC: after some time it was back at the pre-burning densities and they had given up trying to control it(P15)	"PP: Other reasons for having it at this density were that it was gbeautiful to look ath; it supported their diet in summer; it was delicious and they wanted more; it was a healthy natural fruit and they needed more, it was scarce and thicker densities were needed; and finally that they all depended on it and wanted more around them. (P15)"	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data 	No data	No data	No data	No data 	No data	"PP: Everyone interviewed said that Prickly Pear had been in and around the village before they were born. In the group workshop, participants revealed that they were unaware that Prickly Pear was an alien species; so much so that one woman insisted that it was gthe plant of my ancestorsh. (P12)
BW: All the people interviewed at Catha were aware that Black Wattle was a foreign species. (P22). Black Wattle was viewed as a year round resource that was readily available and useful for fuel wood, building and fencing. Although people were aware of these benefits there were areas in the landscape where Black Wattle growth was undesirable; these included grazing areas, sacred pools, homesteads and riverbanks, as they either reduced the productivity, cultural heritage or safety of that particular area. The costs of these benefits were not only felt by those who used Black Wattle but also by other people in the village. (P25)"	No data	"PP: Only 4 % (Table 2) of the people interviewed said that the abundance of Prickly Pear had increased over the recent past (last 5 ? 10 years), while 67 % said that it has decreased. (P12)
PP: Prickly Pear has been growing in the area for over 200 years (van Sittert 2002), and its adoption into everyday life at Tidbury is obvious.
BW: All interviewees claimed that Black Wattle had increased (Table 8); 73 % blamed the rapid expansion on the prolific dispersal of seeds by the wind; 13 % believed that the current extermination of Black Wattle by the Working for Water programme was actually assisting growth of Black Wattle, rather than reducing it. (P22) Other reasons suggested for the increase was that the area has rich fertile soils and high rainfall, which together promote the growth and spread of the plant"	"PP: The community has evolved a specific harvesting style and tools to collect Prickly Pear. They have created new products like a Prickly Pear wine and jams from the fruit. The fruit was also used economically, with four vendors identified as selling the fruit, which generated supplementary income for the households. It was rumoured to provide medicinal properties and used in the treatment of certain ailments. Its role in supporting community relationships and nurturing reciprocity with the exchange of other food items for buckets of Prickly Pear is valuable (P17)"	"Ciskei tribals, Mpofu district"																																																																													
	"Andy Sheppard, CLA, Ch. 5"	2021/7/14	"McGreavy et al. 2021. Science in indigenous homelands: addressing power and justice in sustainability science from/with/in the Penobscot River. Sustainability Science, 16(3), pp.937-947."	"Wabanaki basket weavers in the Akwesasne Nation and the Maine Indian Basketmakers Alliance (MIBA), Maine, early 2000"	"Daigle, Ranco and collaborators and tribal representatives from Michigan and New York already affected by EAB. Discussions and co-development activities set up under the black ash task force"	Emerald Ash Borer (EAB) (Agrilus planipennis)	Introduction 	Pre invasion with invasion starting in 2018 	IAS	Natural spread 	Socio-cultural	Movement of infested wood	None	Death of the native black ash stands	none	Threat to Black ash used for basket weaving 	"Ban firewood, insect and nursery tree movement inter state and from infested areas . Gene banks for black ash "	"Spread limitation - Ban firewood, insect and nursery tree movement inter state and from infested areas"	No effective direct management approaches available 	Loss of a key cultural tree used for basket weaving 	Conserve / protect threatened species	Seed/Gene banks for black ash 	None	Applications for pilot scoping projects 	None	Not yet assigned	None	Loss of key cultural resource 	Cultural institutions	None	Loss of key cultural resource 	None	"Wabanaki basket weavers and the Maine Indian Basketmakers Alliance (MIBA),"	Direct engagement with scientists working on EAB 	Western science experts and communities already infested 	Poor	Species killing a culturally important tree	Potential based on areas already infested 	Understanding causes of spread beyond natural 	None																																																																														
	"Patricia Howard, LA Chpt. 6"	1/6/2019 PH	"McWilliams, 2000. A Plague on Your House? Some Impacts of Chromolaena odorata on Timorese Livelihoods. Supplemental data from Shepherd & Palmer, 2015, The modern origins of traditional agriculture: colonial policy, swidden eevelopment, and environmental degradation in Eastern Timor."	"Timorese farmers and livestock owners. Timor, East and West, SE Asia. Colonial times to present."	"Unspecified other than Timorese farmers; Meto farmers in West Timor. Possibly government officials. eField workf and interviews with farmers, as well as literature review."	"Chromolaena odorata - Siam weed - hau suf mutif (lit: white flowered woody shrub) in Meto;  Lantana camara (not systematically covered and no longer invasive, so largely omitted); Opuntia elatior (not systematically covered and no longer a problem, so ommited); Imperata cylindrica is a valuable native invasive affected by Chromolaena. Chromolaena is a highly invasive perennial scrambling shrub that thrives in open grassland and disturbed soil  & thrives in a wide range of soil types and altitudes. Grows  rapidly and produces a dense mass of leaf matter that gradually shades out all other competition. It is unpalatable or toxic to cattle. "	Spread	"Timor has experienced at least three major infestations of exotic weeds over the last 100 years -  in order of appearance, Opuntia elatior, Lantana camara (1940s and 1950s); most recently, Chromolaena odorata."" gAs late as 1977cLantana covered between 25 and 50% of Timor.."" For reasons which remain undocumented,  Lantana began to decline and by the late 1980s had reduced dramatically. Chromolaena probably entered West Timor through cattle trade around 1980 and spread via road networks. In many villages, 60% or more of arable land is covered; in East Timor, it has spread in dryer savannahs.  It is a dominant plant species over extensive areas of West Timor where up to 60% or more of many villages' arable land is covered. However, gthe steeply incised and topographically diverse landscape of Timor does to some extent constrain the spread of Chromolaena, which does not overwhelm all vegetation communities equallyh"	"Land-use and Sea-use change, Biodiversity loss"	"Land-use change: Timorese swidden systems evolved with the Colonial plantation system &  Colonial intervention, which oriented traditional swiddens for market production. Biodiversity loss: Created a less biologically diverse, more extensive form of agriculture that encroached into and burned forests with a reduction in fallows and inadequate fallow management (Shepherd & Palmer 2015). Land-use change: Dutch introduced cattle (1912), developing into an industry based on rangelands and fodder collection. Lantana invasion degraded rangelands, led to overgrazing of remaininig lands, permitting C. odorata invasion, which increased rangeland degradation. In the highlands, where there is uncontrolled burning of forests and catchment protection areas, cattle grazing contributes to widespread soil erosion and land degradation. "	"Economic, Politics, governance and institutions, Socio-cultural"	"Economic - Chromolaena creates increasing competition for  restricted cattle feed supply, grazing pressure increases and cattle are forced to subsist on ever more marginal lands and adjacent forest areas. Politics - Timorese farmers are considered as enemies of the forest and their 'ancient' swidden system the source of environmental degradation. Economic - Chromolaena is unpalatable and even toxic to cattle-  combined with  heavy shading, the expansion of Chromolaena is in direct proportion to the decline in stock feed across the rangelands.  Politics - In the turmoil and civil uncertainty in East Timor over the last few years, issues of weed management have taken a low priority. Socio-cultural - gFor the majority of rural Timorese communities, cattle represent the primary store of a familyfs wealth."" ""Cattle are a vital necessary part of social relationships that  link households in complex ties of interdependency. All major ritual events including marriages, funerals, and collective rituals of the clan, require cattle for feasting and generating the social capital that ensures continuing mutual cooperation and obligation"" so dependence on cattle is high and threats to cattle also threaten culture and social relations."	"Chromolaena is a highly adaptable succession species which ?ourishes in disturbed and eroded areas. These attributes are attractive and assist in both the stabilization of critical slopes (tanah kritis) and the fertilization of eroded soils through aeration and its properties as a soil conditioner. Chromolaena also has the indirect bene?t of reducing the impact of free range cattle grazing within forest lands. Due to its unpalatable, even toxic properties due to high nitrate levels, it provides a kind of buffer zone against cattle incursions, thereby permitting regrowth of forest seedlings in favorable circumstances."	No data	"Chromolaena is easy to clear and burn, reducing the time required for ?eld preparation prior to planting. Supresses Imperata cylindrica, an important weed, in cropping systems."	"It causes a signi?cant loss of available feed for free grazing herds. Has further reduced the availability of dry-season feed, raising the possibility of stock losses through starvation or dramatic declines in the condition of surviving herds. Poor calving rates are also a reported effect. Competes directly with food crops for soil nutrients and increases weeding requirements. Causes a dramatic decline in Imperata, a locally valuable resource for cattle and for thatching, especially of grain storage buildings. "	No Chromolaena prevention on anyone's part	"The reaction of most Government agencies to C. odorata ranges from ambivalence to a positive acceptance or endorsement of the expansion of the weed. Of?cials from the Ministry of Forestry see a number of useful and bene?cial properties of Chromolaena that serve their operational objectives. Farmers attempt to control on agricultural land especially through weeding. Rangeland burning, which might help to Chromolanea, has been prohibited."	"Local feed management strategies  are  severely constrained by the lack of  a coordinated industry approach. Farmer responses tend to be  localized and opportunistic. In the absence programs for improving  rangeland feed stocks, and government proscriptions on the use of ?re as a management tool in  rangelands, small cattle owners have to use whatever palatable feed persists into the late dry season. The inability of farmers to weed  gardens early and effectively is a major factor in reducing crop yieldsc.maize gardens now seem to require an additional weeding to ensure adequate crop yields."" Weeding is effective only with excessive labour inputs."	"Agriculture - to maintain crop yields, reduce labour requirements; Forest Department - disincentives to control & manage (see Impacts on Nature)"	"Conserve / protect threatened species, Abandonment, Replace reduced/missing resources , Changes in livestock systems, Changes in tree / forest systems"	"Conserve/protect, and replace reduced/missing resources: Remaining Imperata areas  become far more valuable and closely managed. Some communities are actively cultivating Imperata as the resource becomes locally scarce and increases in value. Change in livestock systems: Cattle owners who favor low-input extensive management systems of cattle rearing must take cattle farther a?eld to obtain feed ; those who use cut-and-carry feed systems often must allow animals to roam in the late dry season to search for feed. Abandonment: abandoned invaded rangelands; Changes in tree/forest systems - burn forests for livestock grazing."	"Labor rather than land tends to be the critical limiting resource in extensive dryland farming systems, and added weeding requirements caused impose a direct additional burden on Timorese farmer families. Maize gardens seem to require an additional weeding to ensure adequate crop yields"	No data	"Increasing competition for  restricted cattle feed,  overgrazing, grazing on very marginal land, uncontrolled burning of forest areas and catchment protection zones, cause widespread soil erosion and land degradation across the highlands.  Directly and indirectly, Chromolaena has a signi?cant and deleterious impact on the capacity of farmer communities to raise cattle. Grazing land is  taken out of production, with likely severe impacts on the cattle population. Farmers have lower yields and poor tree crop establishment, and added weeding requirements  impose a direct additional burden on  farmer families"	"Material and immaterial assets, Social, spiritual and cultural relations"	No data 	"Material and immaterial assets: Cattle production and cattle outputs decrease; requirement for greater movements of cattle and people for feed resources. Social, spiritual and cultural relations: Cattle underpin social relations of reciprocity and cultural rituals. Material assets: More labour time is required for weeding; due to lack of labour and competition, crop yields decrease. Material assets: Threat to Imperata grass resources needed for housing and especially grain storage systems; "	"Settlement / land use, Resource tenure, Cultural institutions"	No data	"Land use; resource tenure Grazing pressure increases and cattle are forced to subsist on ever more marginal lands and adjacent forest areas. There is a signi?cant  deleterious impact on the capacity of farmer communities to raise cattle over wide areas of the island. As more grazing land is taken out of production, there is likely to be a severe impact on the cattle populations and the cattle industry as a whole. The threat to Imperata resources undermines capacity of communities to manage their diverse, meager, resources through storage. Cultural institutions: Cultural institutions and rituals based on cattle, including reciprocity and rituals, are also under threat."	Cattle grazing in forestry lands is a signi?cant management issue in Timor and one that often places the Forestry Department in con?ict with local cattle owners. It is interesting to note in this respect thatca similar con?ict of interest [was reported] over the spread of Lantana across Timor during the ?rst half of the twentieth centuryh	No data	"gNo signi?cant policy or program responses from local governments; weeds are low priority, based upon con?icting perceptions of the impact and potential threat of Chromolaena. Department of Animal Husbandry recognizes the problem and there is political pressure but no practical action strategies ? the agency focus is on intensi?cation rather than rangeland management and pasture improvementh "	No data.	"gcLocal farmers have yet fully to adjust their farming strategies and techniques to Chromolaena, which may have offsetting advantages that cancel out or diminish its deleterious effects as in other regions of Indonesia, where farming intensities and the comparative advantages of long- and short-term fallow agriculture produce variable perceptions of the usefulness of the weed by peasant farming communitiesh"	"""Chromolaena is a highly invasive perennial scrambling shrub that thrives in open grassland and disturbed soil. It grows rapidly and produces a dense mass of leaf matter that gradually shades out all other competition. This particular propensity of the plant gave rise to its common though facetious Indonesian name, erumput golkarf (Golkar grass), after the then ruling government party of Indonesia, which had a similar dampening effect on political competition."" The arrival of a new plant species is noted quickly by local farmers, who are acutely conscious of their environment and its economic potential. As it spread out from the road verges and became more widely recognized, Chromolaena came to be known as the ehau suf mutif (lit: white ?owered woody shrub) ."	The experience of many Timorese farmers is that Chromolaena reduces maize  yields. The effect was described as one where the roots (bafan) of  Chromolaena were etoo hotf (maput lefuf) and damaged those of the maize. The notion of excessive heat here represents a conventional metaphor used among Meto Timorese communities to describe illness or antagonism. Excessive heat is opposed to the coolness required for fertility and healthy life..h 	No data	"Timorese farmers managed to incorporate Lantana fairly effectively into their cropping systems. Indeed, the increase in biomass and Lantanafs soil conditioning properties tended to improve cropping conditions and to reduce the fallow period required in swidden cultivation systems. They were opposed to government efforts to control Lantana."	Timorese																																																																													
TK.2	"Hanieh Saeedi, Fellow chapter 2"	2021/7/13	"Miranda-Chumacero et al, 2012. Distribution of arapaima (Arapaima gigas) (Pisces: Arapaimatidae) in Bolivia: implications in the control and management of a non-native population"	"Takana II Indigenous Territory in Bolivia, near the arapaimafs reported initial invasion zone in Peru"	CIPA ichthyologists and community fisher	"Fish arapaima (Arapaima gigas), native range in the Central Amazon"	Establishment	"ff Local communities (2002-2008), including observations on arapaima catches, indicate that until 2008 arapaima had not been reported in the area. However, in 2009, there were reports of arapaima in the Undumo stream. Our results demonstrate that since the first presence of arapaima in Bolivia at the beginning of the 1980s, it has steadily expanded its distribution.ff (Miranda-Chumacero et al 2012, 129)."	Land-use and Sea-use change	No data	No data	No data	No data	"Negative: Strong decline in native fish populations
ff In northern Bolivia, it may be causing a reduction of native fish populations, including many fish of high commercial valueff (Miranda-Chumacero et al 2012, 129)."	"Commercial fishing
ffIn Riberalta, up to 85 percent of commercial fish in the market is arapaima, suggesting that while arapaima populations have increased so has arapaima fishing, in turn causing a general change in fishery catches.ff (Miranda-Chumacero et al 2012, 135).


"	"Caused conflicts between indigenous communities 

ff The presence of arapaima has also caused conflicts between indigenous communities and other local fishermen, since arapaima move between lakes and lagoons inside indigenous territories, inhabiting areas that are owned by the communities. It is important to note that fishing techniques employed by local fishermen today have not been modified to capture the largest individuals of arapaima, and this may help to maintain very large arapaima individuals in the invasion area.ff (Miranda-Chumacero et al 2012, 135). According to local
fishermen in parts of Bolivia, fishery catches
have dropped in areas where arapaima have been
reported and the species is blamed for changes in
the structure and composition of native fish
communities              Reduced other fish stock
ff According to local fishermen in parts of Bolivia, fishery catches have dropped in areas where arapaima have been reported and the species is blamed for changes in the structure and composition of native fish communitiesff (Miranda-Chumacero et al 2012, 135)."	No data	"ff One management possibility is to reduce arapaima populations to a low level and thereafter maintain this level by sustainable harvesting, since paradoxically this large fish is a valuable economic resource and hence maybe beneficial for many fishing communities.ff (Miranda-Chumacero et al 2012, 136)
effIntensifying arapaima fishing could also help the recovery of other commercial fish species since the majority of fishing effort would be directed towards arapaima. The majority of riverine communities have reduced access to basic services and a community-based management initiative could become a sustainable management model for a non-native species, endangered across its natural distribution, which threatens native species. Intensified fishing methods need to specifically target arapaima, especially the largest individuals that are currently under fished. Otherwise all fishes, including arapaima and native fishes, will be over-fished.ff (Miranda-Chumacero et al 2012, 136)
ffctwo potential scenarios for the arapaima in Bolivia should be considered: a) the impact of arapaima on native fish populations strongly reduces richness and composition of the native fish fauna, therefore drastically affecting all local fish, or b) there is a more dynamic balance of fish communities between seasons of the year making it possible for the wetlands to renew to a degree and the presence of arapaima has a more limited affect on the richness and abundance of local fish species. Based on one of these alternatives, a control system will have to be planned in order to a) reduce arapaima populations to the minimum possible, or b) maintain these populations to a degree where there is balance between the presence of local fish species and the long-term management of arapaima considering both environmental and human needs.ff (Miranda-Chumacero et al 2012, 136)
"	No data	"ffDue to a high commercial value, the arapaima has been subject to strong fishing pressure that has drastically reduced its native populations in Brazil and Peru where national management plans are being developed for sustainable useff (Miranda-Chumacero et al 2012, 135)."	"Conserve / protect threatened species, Manage invasive species as a resource , Utilisation of invasive species, Changes in fishing systems"	No data	No data	No data	No data	"Social, spiritual and cultural relations"	No data	No data	Resource tenure	No data	Reduction in other commercial fish used in commmunity fisheries	No data	No data	No data	No data	"Future prospects
ffctwo potential scenarios for the arapaima in Bolivia should be considered: a) the impact of arapaima on native fish populations strongly reduces richness and composition of the native fish fauna, therefore drastically affecting all local fish, or b) there is a more dynamic balance of fish communities between seasons of the year making it possible for the wetlands to renew to a degree and the presence of arapaima has a more limited affect on the richness and abundance of local fish species. Based on one of these alternatives, a control system will have to be planned in order to a) reduce arapaima populations to the minimum possible, or b) maintain these populations to a degree where there is balance between the presence of local fish species and the long-term management of arapaima considering both environmental and human needs.ff (Miranda-Chumacero et al 2012, 136)
"	No data	No data	No data	No data	Takana II indigenous territory																																																																													
	"Romina Fernandez, Fellow Chpt.4"	05/07/2021 RF	Monterroso et al. 2011. New methods for the analysis of invasion processes: Multi-criteria evaluation of the invasion of Hydrilla verticillata in Guatemala	"Local community from Lake Izabal Watershed, Guatemala. "	"gtarget groups included all government representatives including local municipalities, representatives of non-governmental organizations, fishermen associations, and representatives of transport associations and local organizations working at the local and regional levels on natural resource management (water and protected areas), transport and tourism related issuesh /Literature review, field work, interviews and Workshops"	Hydrilla verticillata	spread	"gtransport and fishing groups played a role in its spread, along with both traditional and sport fishermenh "	Land-use and Sea-use change	" gthe species might have been introduced via the ballast water of yachts and sail boats, through contamination from a boatfs propeller, or from inadequate aquarium disposalh "	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	"gDisruption in regulation services induced by diminishing productive capacities from the lake (e.g. decrease in fishing stocks available for fishing) are reported by local stakeholders as important issues requiring management by authoritieshchdisruptions in cultural services those services that generate non-material benefits people obtain from ecosystems, such as effects on the aesthetic view of the lake and on traditional fishing practices, and their repercussions in tourism and fishing are also importanth"	No data	"When referring to control options of H. verticillata, technical reports conducted in the study site discuss three major control measures: physical, chemical, and biological"""	"gConcerns about the potential impacts of control measures used to manage H. verticillata on livelihoods and ecosystems resulted in conflict among local stakeholders over which control measures should be used and what areas should be given priorityhch Conflict over management responses began to emerge when discontented local organizations denounced the Guatemalan authorities and presented the case in the Central American Water Tribunal, an autonomous independent and international organization of environmental justice.9 The Tribunal blamed the Guatemalan government and its environmental offices for negligence during the first stages of the invasion process. After the Tribunal rule, local actors demanded openness and deliberation during discussions around proposed control actions arguing these could affect their livelihood systems """	To protect the lake for conservation and tourism	Changes in fishing systems	decrease in fishing stocks available for fishing	No data	"gIn Lake Izabal, various individuals and groups have committed significant resources to managing H. verticillata, either in time (e.g. boat drivers removing the plant from waterways to pass through) or in money (e.g. chalet owners buying herbicides)h "	No data	"Social, spiritual and cultural relations, Material and immaterial assets"	No data	"Social, spiritual and cultural relations, Material and immaterial assets: gdisruptions in cultural services those services that generate non-material benefits people obtain from ecosystems, such as effects on the aesthetic view of the lake and on traditional fishing practices, and their repercussions in tourism and fishing are also importanth "	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	"""The results from the evaluation of the impact matrix indicate that according to environmental and social criteria, those scenarios integrating different control measures  are ranked higher than scenarios using only one"""	No data	No data	No data	No data	"Local villagers, fishers from Lake Izabal watershed"																																																																													
	"Tatsiana Lipinskaya, Fellow, Chpt1"	15/07/2021 TL	"Morales & Perfecto, 2000 - Traditional knowledge and pest management in the Guatemalan highlands"	"Mayan inhabitants; Patz?n, a Cakchiquel Maya town in the Guatemalan highlands; work from August 1994 - March 1997, but using the modified survey in May 1995"	"75 people, 30 traditional farmers and 45 non-traditional ones, 38 people younger than 40, 37 older than 40, 58 men and 17 women.

semi-structured interview with open-ended questions to ask growers about practices they believe to be effective against insect pests, and to describe those practices. Individual and group surveys, complemented by field observations, in order to document and assess traditional pest management practices among Cakchiquel farmers. Exploratory survey about traditional pest control practices to evaluate comprehension and interpretation by Cakchiquels and a few members of other Maya language groups"	herbivorous insect pests	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	"crop damage, income decrease"	"They prevent insect attacks by using agronomic practices (soil management, plant nutrition, and strict sowing and harvesting schedules). They mentioned 26 preventive practices that help repel insects or make plants resistant to insect attacks in the field and in storage"	mechanical controls as well as botanical and synthetic pesticides; application of botanical insecticides and incense burning to control and/or repel insects 	"The main reason why Patzuneros do not have a broad knowledge of curative pest management practices is that the majority of them do not consider insects to be pests in the milpa. Insect pests are a new problem for them, one that arose with the advent of non-traditional crops. Given their lack of access to information, farmers are unable to keep up with the rapid changes induced by globalization. Limited knowledge for pest control"	"crop damage, income decrease"	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	An herbivore that does not cause economic damage is not a pest. 	No data	No data	No data																																																																														
	"Ankila Hiremath, LA, Ch. 4"	10/07/2021 AH	Mosweu et al. 2013. Prosopis L. Invasion in the South-Western Region of Botswana: The Perceptions of Rural Communities and Management Options	San communities of Kgalagadi	"Community members, BORAVAST Trust Community-Based Natural Resource Management Committee, Village Chiefs and their assistants, head-men, Village Development Committee members, elders. Vegetation survey, questionnaire survey, focused group discussions"	"Prosopis species / Prosopis juliflora. [Throughout, the authors refer to eProsopisf without specifying the species, but at the outset there is a suggestion that Prosopis juliflora is the invasive species of interest.] "	Spread	"In and around settlements, near livestock watering points."	No data	No data	"Politics, governance and institutions"	Introduced in the 1980s by the former Department of Foresty	No data	Reduced native plant diversity and abundance. Depletion of ground water. 	"Firewood, wood for making fences, pods as fodder"	"Pods consumed in excess can cause livestock death. Thorns cause injuries, delate tyres. "	No data	"Some efforts made to eradicate/control the spread of Prosopis by pruning the tree/uprooting the tree. Government assistance also sought, and Prosopis removal was included as part of a government poverty-alleviation programme."	"Lack of external support, lack of adequate markets for Prosopis-derived products are constraints to people's exploiting it/controlling its spread. "	Its negative impacts on people's livelihoods underlies their efforts to control Prosopis.	No data	No data	No data	No data	Negative socioeconomic impacts of the speceis were seen to exceed any benefits that people derive from it. (There was interest in potential livelihood benefits to be derived from Prosopis--as seen in other places--however lack of resources is a constraint.)	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	Community sought external help to control the species. Prosopis control was included in government's poverty alleviation schemes.	No data	"""this study recommended an integrated management approach in which potential methods of controlling the spread of Prosopis plants are implemented on a case-based system. The study also recommended that in the implementation of the recommended model, socio-economic benefits as-sociated with Prosopis plants should be promoted to fos-ter sustainability in community development and natural resources management.h (Mosweu et al. 2013, p. 503)"	No data	IPLC perceived negative socioeconomic impacts as outweighing beneficial impacts of Prosopis.	"IPLC recognized that the former Forest Dept introduced the species in the 1980s, before which individuals of the community had also introduced it from neighbouring countries. They recognized that dispersal of seeds by livestock promotes its spread. "	"People initially accepted the species (""embraced it"") but as rates of spread increased (starting in 1990s) its negative impacts on livelihoods started to become a concern. "	San																																																																													
	"Ellen Ryan-Colton, fellow CH4"	15/07/2021 ERC	"Mungataba and Ahimbisibwe 2012. Qualitative impacts of Senna spectabilis on distribution of welfare: A household survey of dependent communities in Budongo Forest Reserve, Uganda"	"Local people, mainly subsistence farmers, around Budongo Forest Reserve (BFR), in the counties of Buruli, Bujenje and Bulisa, in western Uganda"	"Structured questionaire of 248 households, 124 in infested forest areas and 124 in un-infested forest areas. The respondensts were usually the head or oldest person in the household. The respondents 36% female and 64% male, 95% younger than 65, 5% older than 65. 83% subsistence farmers, 17% public servant/self-employed/other. Average annual income $300 USD 38%, $300-$600 USD 19%, above $600 27% (17% no response). 70% of respondents were literate. Compared to national statistics [compared in the papers methods], the respondents are representative of a rural area in Uganda, and relatively poor compared to urban areas. Translators were used to translate from English questionnaire to local language. "	"Senna spectabilis ? medium to large tree, fast-growing, with lots of seed."	Establishment	covers 20% of the BFR (approx. 1000 ha now invaded). Extremely fast growth rates. Spread alarmed early researchers in 2006. 	"Land-use and Sea-use change, Natural drivers"	"Land use: Introduced by sawmill operators or Europoeans, for firewood or a boundary marker for the forest reserve. Still found along logging trails. Also because Senna spectabilis is highly abundant, the reponse of ILPC to harvest it for resources is helped because peopleare proximite to this resource, and because it is highly abundant, making resource gathering efficient.  Natural drivers: Chimpanezes in the forest donft eat it, so nothing to graze it down. "	"Politics, governance and institutions"	"Policics etc: Public agencies are promoting the use Senna spectabilis for its welfare benefits, in other parts of Uganda. Governance and institutions: Weak organisational structures and policies without a coordinated multi-sectorial approach to support IAS management. Knowledge: lack of information, especially about socio-economimc costs and benefits of IAS, in order to inform decion-making and have effective IAS management"	No data	"Creates a monoculture, and displaces other species. "	"Impacts vary depending on distance to infestation of Senna spectabilis ? gHouseholds close to areas of S. spectabilis concentrations derive substantially higher bene?ts from the species compared to those located farther away.h (Mungatana and Ahimbisibwe 2012 pg 189). Beneficial: Firewood, poles for construction/fencing, charcoal. The use of this resources represent savings in household income as they were mostly for household consumption. Small benefit to 24 households as medicine. Other smaller benefits mentioned were shade, flower provisio, wind breaks, but other trees in the area are more preferred over Senna spectabilis for these benefits"	"Largest harmful impact was facilitating disease transmission - Mosquitos live in Senna that then transmit malaraia. Smaller detriments - Creates lots of leaf litter, so not a desirable garden tree.  Unpalatable tp livestock (not huge detriment as not much grazing in the community).  Also, on average 70% of respondents said they would have a loss in livelihood if Senna negatively impacted the values of the forest reserve (but this is a perceived risk). "	No data	No data	"Senna spectabilis resprouts quickly after it is cut. Also weak governance and policies, and lack of information and assessment of socio-economic costs and benefits is hindering the ability to manage IAS on a country wide scale. "	"on average 85% of resopndents said they would control Senna in the forest reserve, if their livelihoods were going to suffer because of negative impacts of Senna "	Utilisation of invasive species	"Senna spectabilis is used for firewood, posts, charcoal as the main resources gathered to support local liveliohoods. "	No data	No data	"gHouseholds living in the infested areas harvest higher quantities of ?rewood, charcoal and poles in comparison to their counterparts in the non-infested forest areas. [bundles of resources per week reported in word template table]. Most respondents reported harvesting these products for their own consumption, which means these products count for savings in household income. The results suggest that by living in the infested areas, the difference in the magnitude of bene?ts received by the household is important.h (Mungatana and Ahimbisibwe 2012 pg 187)"	"Material and immaterial assets, Health (mental and physical)"	Assets: Senna  resources are supporting livelihoods - savings on household income by gathering resources from Senna for household consumption. 	"Health: Repondenst said Senna trees support mosquitos that carry malaria, so there is a percieved risk of malaria for people. [but no data to show whether diease rates were higher in Senna areas, but this is still as concern for people]. "	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	"About 65% of respondents are aware of the invasiveness of Senna, and its potential impacts to the conservation of the forest reserve. This is likely due to the anti-Senna campaigns run by a UN project in the area since 2006. "	"Replace Senna as a resource with a less invasive species - Need to acknowledge to value of Senna in supoprting forest based livelihoods, and could try to find a non-invasive species to provide the same benefits.  This would help to lower the resistance from people about controlling Senna. "	no data	"Provides benefits include firewood, charcoal and posts as the main resources. Support liveliohoods by saving on household income. Smaller benefits include medicine, shade, flowers, but other species are preferred for this. Negative impacts include harbouring malarai-carrying mosiqutos, dropping litter everywhere. "	no data	"Yes incorporating the IAS into their customary use of forest resources for fuel, building, medicine, to support livelihoods. Acknowledged that they would be willing to control it if Senna was seen to poses a risk to their livelihoods by threateneing values of the forest reserve. "	"Subsistence farmers, near Budongo Forest Reserve"																																																																													
CH.3	"Bharat B Shrestha, LA Ch. 6"	24/7/2021	"Murphy, et al. 2013. Invasive mikania in Chitwan National Park, Nepal: the threat to the greater one-horned rhinoceros Rhinoceros unicornis and factors driving the invasion. Oryx 47: 361?368. doi:10.1017/S003060531200124X.

"	"Indigenous and ethnic communities including Tharu, Bote, Musahar, Magar, Gurung, Tamang residing in buffer areas of Chitwan National Park (Chitwan and Nawalparasi districts), Nepal; April to May 2009."	156 respondents (53% male and 47% female) selected from five village communities (four in Chitwan district and one in Nawalparasi district); they are mostly farmers.  Households were selected randomly and one person (respondent) from each household were interviewed using structured questionnaire.	Mikania micrantha (Fam. Asteraceae)	Spread	"gOverall, the communities reported that mikania is spreading rapidly.h 
gOur survey confirms that mikania is established in a wide area in the core of the Park, in places totally smothering native vegetation, and thus the potential for mikania to destroy prime habitat for rhinoceroses is high.h 
gMikania is common across much of the grassland areas and is not necessarily removed from the grass cut for fodder.h
"	Resource extraction	: gThis study also indicates that human activity is exacerbating mikania spread and growth through collection and transport of the plant and through the annual burning of the Park.h 	No data	No data	No data	"gOur survey confirms that mikania is established in a wide area in the core of the Park, in places totally smothering native vegetation, and thus the potential for mikania to destroy prime habitat for rhinoceroses is highh  [This is authorfs view based on ecological assessment]"	gIt was also clear that mikania is not utilized in any significant way apart from supplementing fodder grasses for goats during the dry period. Twenty three percent of the households sampled indicated that mikania is collected for fodder on an ad hoc basis from the core Park and community forestsh 	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	"gIdeally, the burning needs to be controlled such that native vegetation in the Park has a chance to survive and out-compete mikania, which is fire-adapted.h. [This is authorsf view]"	No data	No data	No data	No data	Inhabitants of Chitwan National Park buffer zone																																																																													
LB.2	"Patricia Howard, LA Chpt. 6"	2021/7/5	"Mwangi & Swallow, 2008, Prosopis juliflora Invasion and Rural Livelihoods in the Lake Baringo Area of Kenya "	Lake Baringo and Lake Bogoria. Ngfambo and Loboi districts represent a gradient from very high densities of P. juliflora in Ngfambo  to Loboi where stands are less dense. Ngfambo are of the Il Chamus ethnic group; the people of Loboi are Tugen  	"key informant interviews and a semi-structured survey of residents in the Ngfambo (65 - 37 men, 28 women) and Loboi  (48 - 23 men, 25 women).  Economic cost-benefit analysis."	Prosopis juliflora	Spread	"P. juliflora was first introduced in the coastal areas of Kenya in 1973 with seed from Brazil and Hawaii. early 1980s it was introduced in the semi-arid districts of Baringo, Tana River and Turkana in order to promote energy self-sufficiency and environmental stabilisation. Today, these three areas show large pockets of P. juliflora colonisation and invasion. 1st 10 years remained stable; 15 years later estimated that about 75 per cent of the Ngfambo area is currently subject to P. juliflora invasion, directly affecting about 10,000 people. Local people perceive that there has been a rapid increase in the density of P. juliflora over the last 5?10 years. P. juliflora is now very well established in areas close to water sources and swamp lands; the same areas that are critical for dry season pasture and crop cultivation"	"IAS, Natural drivers"	"IAS: causing biodiversity loss - forage grasses and native trees; Natural:  communal grazing fields are located around the shores of Lake Baringo, where soil moisture is high, further enhancing the conditions for the growth and proliferation of P. juliflora; Dispersal of seeds by both livestock and water, including river flooding."	"Politics, governance and institutions, Science, technology, and knowledge, Socio-cultural"	"Politics: : P. juliflora was introduced into Baringo district through the efforts of the eFuelwood/Afforestation Extension in Baringof project, a joint initiative of the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and the Government of Kenya using World Food Programme ""Food for Work"" payments. Politics:  government policy restrictions on the transportation and sale of charcoal severely limit the range of use options which may have potential to help in the control of P. juliflora stands. Land tenure institutions: communal versus private.  There was a great increase in P. juliflora density on communal land because there were no organised control efforts; Technological: Livestock were identified as an important dispersal agent for P. juliflora seeds because they eat the seed pods and drop the seeds with their manure"	No data.	Biodiversity loss: loss of forage (grass species); loss of native tree species	"[For the first 10 years after introduction] was appreciated it as a fuelwood source and for its environmental services of reducing erosion and dust storms, providing shade and reducing ambient temperatures. Used for construction poles, fencing poles, fuelwood, pods, ropes, honey and charcoal. Charcoal is far less important. All respondents indicated some use of P. juliflora products. Depends on level of invasion, subsistence orientation"	"invasion into crop fields and associated costs of clearing, invasion into grazing areas and associated loss of grazing territory for livestock, invasion into wetlands that reduces their value for watering and dry season grazing, invasion into the lakeshore areas making fishing more difficult, damage to the tyres of vehicles and bicycles, wearing out of cutting tools quickly due to the hard wood, consumption of seed pods that damage teeth of goats, sharp thorns that cause wounds to goats and cattle, and increased malaria incidence from having P. juliflora thickets close to homes "	Purposefully introduced. Otherwise no data.	"Group level: Minimum efforts to control the P. juliflora problem have been undertaken at the group level. In 2001 local chief and elders of Ngfambo mobilised community members to clear on community land, but abandoned and reinvaded. Individual efforts on private land - uproot or cut P. juliflora seeds or trees, cut, burn and prune, usually during land prepartion, some up to 4 x /year and some continuously throughout the year."	Only those who can afford to pay for labour to clear P. juliflora are able to have land for cultivation. Community effort: river burst its banks so effort was abandoned and area reinvaded. The increase of P. juliflora on individual land was attributed to difficulties in controlling the spread of the trees and dispersal of seed by both livestock and water. There was a great increase in P. juliflora density on communal land because there were no organised control efforts	"Individuals in the Ngfambo and Loboi areas, the sites of initial planting, are demanding its eradication, not least because its benefits are far outweighed by its undesirable properties"	"Changes in livestock systems, Changes in fishing systems, Changes in wild resource systems, Utilisation of invasive species, Abandonment"	"Livestock: More frequently taken to pastures 40-50 km away. Fishing: more difficult due to invasion of lakeshore areas limiting access; Wild resource systems: more difficult to harvest fuelwood: utilisation: used for fuelwood, charcoal, poles, construction, fencing, ropes, honey, pods for livestock feed; Abandonment: of agriculture, and of settlements"	Control work is done by all family members and sometimes by casual labourers; women bear high costs of clearing P. juliflora  from their crop fields and gardens. Wage labour required to maintain agriculture.	Many cite the continuous and costly process of clearing as a constraint to their farming activities. Only those who can afford to pay for labour to clear P. juliflora are able to have land for cultivation. Control costs were estimated as part of total cost-benefit analysis; costs were higher than benefits with some exceptions.	"losses due to livestock deaths and cost of control exceed benefits derived from sale and use of P. juliflora products in all villages in the Ngfambo area where invasion is highest.  One village in the Ngfambo area, Chemonke, experiences the lowest benefits and highest costs of living with P. juliflora?close to five times the costs incurred by neighbouring villages. Chemonke village had the highest density and greatest invasion from P. juliflora, to the extent that many residents had abandoned their homesteads and moved to neighbouring areas such as Loropil "	"Material and immaterial assets, Health (mental and physical), Safety and security"	"Material and immaterial: net losses overall, with major differences depending on density of invasion. Individual benefits  exceed losses in 2 of 3  villages in  Loboi areacbut  women  experience higher losses  than men & receive much greater benefits (17x more). Invasive is ess widespread -  mainly for firewood collection."	"Material and immaterial: Losses due to livestock deaths and cost of control exceed benefits derived from sale and use of P. juliflora products in all villages in the Ngfambo area where invasion is highest. Herders are hardest hit; women who clearly benefit from greater supplies of fuelwood also bear high costs of clearing P. juliflora  from their crop fields and gardens. Health:  increased malaria incidence, wounds from thorns; Safety/security: increased conflict from resttlement, displacement from homes and farms, trespassing."	"Governance institutions , Social stratification, Settlement / land use, Resource tenure"	Not reported	"Governance institutions: Policy restrictions prevent locals from using Prosopis for charcoa; trade is dominated by outsiders; Resettlement: Ng'ambo farms and settlements have been displaced; livestock taken 40-50 km away to graze; People from Chemonke, where the P. juliflora invasion is most intense, have moved to the villages of Keper and Loropil Social stratification: herders and poorer farmers especially disadvantaged"	"Livestock more frequently moved to pastures 40?50 km away but are denied access by residents who fear spread of the P. juliflora; some from Chemonke village have been displaced and sought alternative settlement elsewhere, sometimes renting land - conflicts have arisen; half the respondents in Ngfambo location indicated having some form of conflict centred on access to resources due to displacement from homes and farms (52 per cent) and trespass of displaced people into othersf territory (48 per cent)"	"Current government environmental policy papers show a certain ambiguity concerning Prosopis, which reflects the lack of a clear strategy as to how to control the invasion. The government follows a strategy of passive promotion, identifying Prosopis as an invasive, alien invader but at the same time stressing its role as highly valuable resourcec [international agenciescstudies tend to focus on the enormous potential of Prosopis to increase feed production and to generate investment opportunities for feed processing companiescthe potential environmental services involvedcthat could create benefits for local producers and agro-industries. Faced with blurred policies and fragmented institutional mandates between sectors the Ethiopian government has not implemented any serious, coordinated control intervention so far. Calls for a coordinated management are everywhere but it hasnft been decided yet what to favour: eradication or controlled plantation programmes"	"Responsibility for the current livelihood crisis and increasing pastoral vulnerability is mainly directed at the state. Governmental interventions are perceived as unjust since they do not support but instead marginalize pastoral livelihoods. Pastoralists construct an image of governments that misuse their power, ignore pastoral rights, disturb pastoral livelihoods and lack any form of legitimacy. [partly due to efforts to disarm the pastoralists, who need their arms to defend themselves against the Issa]cThe pastoralists perceive themselves as eforgotten peoplef and distrust governmental interventions due to the past experiences of socio-political marginalization and expropriation of land. In 2009 two large dams were established by the government in order to grow sugarcane on 80,000 ha, evicting pastoralists from their prime grazing land along the Awash river "	"When Prosopis was introduced in the 1980s, neither the local extension agents nor the pastoralists had any knowledge about the invasive potential of Prosopis or about measures to control its spread. Because we didnft know anything about it, everybody was given three seedlings to plant in their front yard. So everybody was protecting this tree in front of his house from being damaged. If somebody attempted to break a little piece to make a toothbrush, people were fighting over such things. So, it is this tree that they told us was good for us that has done such damage to us today, the tree that they said was good for us.h (Pastoralist, Inti-Adoyta)"	"""Unless the Afar start growing something out of the ground, there is no hope for the people. There is a threat of extinction of these people due to hunger. We will probably only be found in history books in the future, saying? there used to exist people called Afar. c Here, as you can see, every where is covered by Woyane tree, over there the area is occupied by the Issas, so, where can the livestock graze? They canft eat stones. Thousands upon thousands of livestock have perished three years ago""  (Afar clan leader, 2006). As a side effect of governmental interventions, new risks are produced that gradually undermine pastoral coping capacities and resilience. The negative costs of modernization and national food security have to be paid by the pastoralists.... Although the governmental promotion of small-scale irrigated agriculture, the provision of food aid or infrastructural measures like the establishment of schools and health posts may result in isolated improvements for some pastoralists, they are not adequate to tackle the root causes of pastoral vulnerability and marginalization. From this perspective also the current governmental climate change initiatives appear to be quite ambivalent "	"Local denominations of the plant are eWoyane Hararf or eDeta Hararf. While the latter is the Afar translation for eblack treef due to its dark ever-green appearance, eWoyanef refers to the Tigrinean liberation movement during the Derg and members of the Tigrinean Peoples Liberation Front (TPLF) who are nowadays largely absorbed in the governing party of EPRDF. This denomination might disclose the negative local perception of govern-mental interventions. Both the plant and the state are perceived as invaders into pastoral areas and threatening pastoral livelihood systems"	"""We are dying of hunger, we have no land. Old, wise men today, they are crying. Their heart is bleeding in pain when they know how far they have come from"".. the con?ict with the Issa involves loss of human life and  loss of animals in raids, but the loss of land plays a prominent role in local perceptions due to its economic as well as symbolic function of grazing land. ""Baadu is in problemc. There is no more Baadu. The Woyane tree is destroying Baadu. (Afar woman, 2004) "" ""The reason people used to recover in Baadu before was because there was no Deta Harar. Since Deta Harar came people can no longer recover.  In previous times drought occurred and afterwards, when it was over, animals recovered and multiplied quickly. This Deta Harar has burned the ground. Wherever it grows grass stops growing. The reason people canft get milk and butter is because of this tree c Cattle canft resist anything. If they donft get Sitabu [native grass species] in Baadu they canft survive. (Fatuma Ibrahim, Leas) "	"The pastoral einvasionf discourse focuses on the governmental Prosopis introduction and loss of grazing areas to Issa as root causes for environmental degradation. This narrative highlights the responsibility of the government for the initial introduction, for the concealment of its invasive potential and the subsequent non-interventions to contain its growth. ""conce this Deta Harar started covering the land things started getting worse and worse ? some time ago there was this ?ood water which covered a large area. What remained and recovered after Matalea (drought 1983/84) started dying again with this ?ood water. The number of animals that died in Baadu, except for God, nobody could count the number. This ?ood water burned the vegetation, then Deta Harar started growing, covering the area even more. Since then animals never stopped dying and they stopped giving milk"" (Afar woman, 2005)"	"Threat to entire livelihood and cultural system from combined drivers, including Prosopis. Incorporation of Prosopis through charcoal production."	"Il Chamus pastoralists, Tugen"																																																																													
	"Romina Fernandez, Fellow Chpt.4"	02/07/2021 RF	"Ngorima and Shackleton 2019-Three sites were selected on the basis of being in the distribution range of A. dealbata in the Eastern Cape province, South Africa"	"Local communities from three rural villages ((Matatiele, Mount Fletcher and Maclear)  in the montane grasslands of the Eastern Cape, South Africa. "	"Local communities from three rural villages in the montane grasslands of the Eastern Cape, South Africa. Focus group discussion was done per site, with 10?15 community membershch a household survey was conducted with 50 randomly selected (from aerial images) households per site (150 households in total)hch Key informants were  Working for Water programme staff, government personnel, and local authority officials"".""Between 44% and 52% of the households sampled within the three sites were female-headed""/ gThe research approach adopted a mix of household surveys, focus group discussions and key informant interviewsh "	"Acacia dealbata, Dywabasi, Skamore"	spread	 gThe considerable majority of respondents (Matatiele 88%; Mount Fletcher 94%; Maclear 96%) stated that the abundance of A. dealbata had increased over the last ten yearsh 	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	"""some noted that its presence was providing them with shade during the meetings which help them to relax"""	"gThe majority also noted that it was difficult for crops to flourish in the presence of A. dealbata. They also stated that they would find it difficult to do their farming activities due to its roots""...gThe roots of A. dealbata cause the foundations of their houses to crack which could lead to the collapse of their home""...
gThere were mixed reactions due to the presence of A. dealbata at tribal council sites; some noted that it was too dense there and would affect their communication with ancestorsh"	No data	gIndividual household-level efforts currently focus on its regular removal from arable fields and close to homesteads. This is done on a regular basis when the plants are small and easily chopped or pulledh 	No data	To protect their houses and crop fields	"Utilisation of invasive species, Changes in cropping systems"	"Utilisation of invasive species: gEvery household stated that they used it for firewoodcMost respondents (Matatiele 85%; Mount Fletcher 87%; Maclear 90%) stated that A. dealbata was their primary energy source for cooking and heating"" hThere was also extensive use of A. dealbata poles for fencinghchAcacia dealbata was used to make tools such as axe handles, hoe handles, washing lines and laddersh...h small proportion (< 20%) of households used A. dealbata for medicinal purposes""... hall owning households reported that they use A. dealbata for fodderh                    Changes in cropping systems: gThe majority also noted that it was difficult for crops to flourish in the presence of A. dealbata. They also stated that they would find it difficult to do their farming activities due to its rootsh "	No data	No data	No data	"Safety and security, Material and immaterial assets, Social, spiritual and cultural relations, Freedom of choice or action-negative"	"Material and immaterial assets
gThe majority of households used A. dealbata for firewood, fodder, fencing poles and for handles for tools (such as hoes or axes)hch A small proportion (< 20%) of households used A. dealbata for medicinal purposes""
Social, spiritual and cultural relations 
gsome noted that its presence was providing them with shade during the meetings which help them to relax"""	"Safety and security-
gThe roots of A. dealbata cause the foundations of their houses to crack which could lead to the collapse of their homehchA few respondents at each site stated that they did not want A. dealbata anywhere near their villages because it might harbour criminals."" Material and immaterial assets affect farming activities. Social, spiritual and cultural relations-
gsome noted that acacia was too dense there and would affect their communication with ancestorsh 
Freedom of choice or action
gWomen also expressed fears of going to collect firewood as criminals would hide in A. dealbata patchesh 
"	Education/knowledge 	gNegative perceptions of A. dealbata emerged because of its increased abundance but also because of education campaigns by the national Working for Water programme labelling invasive species as detrimental for the environment and waterh 	No data	No data	"""The majority also noted that it was difficult for crops to flourish in the presence of A. dealbata. They also stated that they would find it difficult to do their farming activities due to its roots. Therefore, before the commencement of the farming season, farming households would engage in land preparation by removing A. dealbata from their fields, mostly during August"""	No data	These respondents stated that information about water consumption of A. dealbata had come from the Working for Water workers	"gThe majority of respondents (87%) felt that their livelihoods will be severely negatively impacted if the current abundance of A. dealbata was doubled, but notably an equal number said that their lives would be a lot more difficult if it was completely removed"""	"""Every respondent recognised A. dealbata by sight and stated that they knew it, referring to it by the local names Dywabasi in isiXhosa or it was Skamore in isiSothoh "	"""A. dealbata grew in some landscapes in which they regarded its presence as problematic, including near homesteads, in fields and cultural sites. The majority of respondents (61%) stated that they did not want A. dealbata near their homesteads. The reason was that the roots of A. dealbata cause the foundations of their houses to crack which could lead to the collapse of their home. The majority also noted that it was difficult for crops to flourish in the presence of A. dealbata. They also stated that they would find it difficult to do their farming activities due to its roots. Therefore, before the commencement of the farming season, farming households would engage in land preparation by removing A. dealbata from their fields, mostly during August. A few respondents stated that A. dealbata was consuming a lot of water and complained that their area was dry"" ch A few respondents at each site stated that they did not want A. dealbata anywhere near their villages because it might harbour criminals. They stated that the presence of A. dealbata allowed criminals to hide which would endanger the communityh "	gThe considerable majority of respondents (Matatiele 88%; Mount Fletcher 94%; Maclear 96%) stated that the abundance of A. dealbata had increased over the last ten years. They attributed this to its ability to produce numerous seeds which are readily dispersed by water or windhch Acacia dealbata was noted in the region already by 1930 which is the year that the oldest member of the focus group discussions was born. The time trend exercises revealed that during the second half of the 20th century it was regarded as a very important resourcechDuring this time permission from the village headman was required to harvest A. dealbata because of its importance. In the mid-1990s the apartheid laws were repealed. This allowed many people to move to towns and cities to seek employment. The resulting decrease in village populations meant that the demand for A. dealbata declined and so its abundance in the landscape increasedh	"gThe majority of respondents (87%) felt that their livelihoods will be severely negatively impacted if the current abundance of A. dealbata was doubled, but notably an equal number said that their lives would be a lot more difficult if it was completely removedh"	Local tribals from montante grasslands of Eastern Cape																																																																													
	"Bharat B Shrestha, LA Ch. 6"	2021/10/7	"Oba, G., Byakagaba, P., & Angassa, A. (2008). Participatory monitoring of biodiversity in East African grazing lands. Land Degradation & Development, 19(6), 636?648. https://doi.org/10.1002/ldr.867"	"Banyarwanda agropastoralists speaking Kinyarwanda; Kyankwanzi and Butemba sub-Counties in Kiboga district, Central Uganda; October 2004"	"Five active herders of 25-40 years of age selected from among 40 households; Participatory monitoring of biodiversity variables (e.g. species richness, cover) in plots of variable sizes (1x1 m2 for grass, 2x2 m2 for herbs, 10x10 m2 for shrubs and 15 x 15 m2 for trees) nested in 30 landscape patches identified by the informants in three landscapes."	"Invasiveness of 61 plant species in rangeland have been reported but it appears that the list included species that are native (e.g. Kyllinga crassipes, Commelina latifolia) as well as exotic (e.g. Lantana camara) to the study region [However, authors did not make this distinction ? native and exotic ? in the article). Lantana camara and Urena lobata were mainly responsible for degrading rangeland quality. "	Spread	Expansion of invasive species at landscape level was attributed to the suppression of fire due to habitat fragmentation and withdrawal of fire according to the official forest policy.	No data	No data	Socio-cultural	"Fire suppression: gc according to the herders, the changes in landscape conditions associated with bush cover and invasiveness were attributable to the withdrawal of fire as a management tool through official forest policy.h  
gIn the case of central Uganda, fire frequency according to the local communities has been reduced due to landscape fragmentations for cropping, grazing and settlements. Consequently, the invasive species have expanded across different landscape patches.h 
"	No data	No data	No data	"gAccording to the herder value-weighted assessments of range condition, Omukura had the highest condition score and Omugongo the lowest condition In the latter landscape, the herders attributed the declining range condition to invasions by Urena lobata (oruhigura) and Lantana camara (kapanga), and increased shrub and tree density.h gWe inferred from the evidence that the Omugongo landscape with the highest species pool was not necessarily the most preferred for livestock grazing. The particular landscape had a greater cover of invasive species as well as greater densities of woody plantsh"	No data	No data	No data	No data	Changes in livestock systems	Change in preference for grazing by herders: gWe inferred from the evidence that the Omugongo landscape with the highest species pool was not necessarily the most preferred for livestock grazing. The particular landscape had a greater cover of invasive species as well as greater densities of woody plantsh	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	"gDiscussions focused on the status of species related to historical knowledge of land use. The herders considered three factors when determining invasiveness scores. Firstly, whether the species concerned was native to the particular landscape.h "	"gAccording to the herder value-weighted assessments of range condition, Omukura had the highest condition score and Omugongo the lowest condition. In the latter landscape, the herders attributed the declining range condition to invasions by Urena lobata (oruhigura) and Lantana camara (kapanga), and increased shrub and tree density.h "	The IPLC attributed the expansion of invasive species to fire suppression due to habitat fragmentation and changed forestry policy (not allowing communities to set fire).	No data	"Banyarwanda agropastoralists, Kiboga District"																																																																													
X (former LV.1 but can be treated separately)	"Esra Per, Fellow Chapter 3"	2021/11/7	"Opande, G.O., Onyango, J.C. and Wagai, S.O. 2004. Lake Victoria: the water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes [Mart.] Solms), its socio-economic effects, control measures and resurgence in the Winam gulf. "	"the lakeshore communities in Dunga, Kusa, Kobala, Nyakwere, Kendu bay, Homa bay, Soft bay, Luanda- k'otieno and Luanda-nyamasaria, between June 1995 and November 1999 "	"The lakeshore community. Surveys and interviews were done on specified beaches. Boats, binoculars, a camera, maps of the Winam gulf, and questionnaires were among the tools and materials used"	The water hyacinth Eichhornia crassipes [Mart.] Solms 	Spread	"The Eichhornia crassipes [Mart.] Solms was introduced to Lake Victoria via the Kagera River in Rwanda by human impact. After infesting Lake Victoria (Uganda), it spread to the Winam gulf, where it proliferated rapidly. Due to an abundance of space, nutrients, solar energy, and a few natural opponents, its spread in this new region has been extremely rapid "	Natural drivers	"Natural drivers: Due to an abundance of space, nutrients, solar energy, and a few natural factors, its spread in this new range has been extremely rapid"	No data	No data	" they provided a source of raw materials for furniture, paper, and artifacts "	"Negative: they hindered fishing, transportation, irrigation, and water treatment, increased breeding grounds for human disease vectors, damaged biodiversity, and provided as a source of raw materials for furniture, paper, and artifacts. Weed blockage is the source of the fishing industry's primary challenges. With these problems, the number of fish caught in locations where the entrances are blocked is decreasing."	No data	"Harmful: The disruption of boat transportation due to beach blockage and the interference these closures cause in the fishing sector. In 1999, weed carpets filled the Dunga water intake point, resulting in a multi-million-shilling loss. The Kisumu Municipal Council's water supply was declined by 25% until the weed problem was manually repaired. "	No data	"The Winam Gulf water hyacinth invasion was managed using three strategies: biological, mechanical, and physical. The quickest and only way of eliminating weed carpets from fish landing beaches has remained manual eradication under the supervision of a beach leader or community elder "	"Following the Kenya Agricultural Research Institute's (KARI) successful biological control, revival and succession were seen "	"Its spread was spectacular, resulting in huge public protests "	Utilisation of invasive species	"Utilisation of invasive species: Dry plant materials are currently being used to make artifacts and furnishings in some pioneering shoreline towns. The most famous example is at Dunga Beach in Kisumu, where dry plant debris is utilized to make chairs, stools, and tables "	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	"Even though the data gathered from the surveys suggested a general increase in disease occurrences as a result of the development of vector breeding grounds on beaches, essential epidemiological data regarding the human disease frequencies were not gathered during this investigation "	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	More research is needed to determine whether this weed is a friend or foe to lakeside communities 	No data	"Water hyacinth has a serious impact on the lives of shoreline communities in the Winam gulf, and it has to be assessed. More research is needed to determine whether this weed is a friend or foe to lakeside communities "	No data	No data	Lakeshore communities																																																																													
	"Chika Egawa, LA, Chpt. 5"	7/7/2021 CE	Orr et al. 2002. Modelling agricultural 'performance': Smallholder weed management in Southern Malawi	"Farmers in the Blantyre Shire Highlands, Southern Malawi.
1996-2000."	"105 smallholder households randomly selected from household listings of four villages in Matapwata and Mombezi Extension Planning Areas (EPAs) are engaged in a formal, structured questionnaire. Farmer's decision-making for weeding was modeled using a hierarchical decsion tree."	"Agricultural weeds, e.g., Bidens Pilosa and Tridax procumbens (The article mentioned many other weed species names, but they donft seem to be aliens and therefore information was not extracted)"	Spread	"Bidens Pilosa  Spread: this is one of the most abundant species with the occurrence of 5.5 plants per m2

Tridax procumbens  Spread: this is one of the most abundant species in the study area with the occurrence of 3.3 plants per m2"	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	Weeds are harmful for crop production. Weeds currently account for the largest share (23%) of the value of crop losses from field pests in the Blantyre Shire Highlands	No data	Manual weeding. Farmers have developed specific weeding techniques.	"The main constraint on timely second weeding is shortage of labour. The labour supply is hindered by socio-economic factors such as age, illness, competing demands on labour time and cost to hire labour."	"Weeding is effective to improve crop production:
gOne weekfs delay in first weeding may reduce maize yields by one-third, and 2 weeksf delay in second weeding may reduce maize yields by one-quarter (Chamango et al. 2000).h (Orr et al. 2002, 265)"	No data	No data	Households in the first and second terciles relied largely on family labour for second weeding whereas those in the third tercile made extensive use of hired labour. Poor farmers work as a casual labour and are hired by other farmers for second weeding; this may lead to resource-poor households neglecting timely cultivation on their own fields.	No data	No data	Material and immaterial assets	No data	"Material and immaterial assets: households that weeded slowly also had significantly higher maize deficits, implying a greater need to earn cash to buy maize."	No data	No data	No data	No data	"Farmers make decisions on weeding in response to variations in rainfall, termites, fertilizer use and labour supply. Farmers have developed specific weeding techniques to cope with these contingencies."	"There are on-farm trials on weed management, which are probably funded by outsiders."	The scope to reduce the demand for weeding labour through new technology seems limited. The low average expenditure on hired labour ($2/household in 1998/99) suggests low potential demand for herbicides.	No data from the viewpoints of IPLC	No data	No data	No data	No data	"Farmers, Blantyre Shire Highlands"																																																																													
	"Elena Tricarico, LA Chpt. 2"	2021/7/14	Peltzer et al. (2019) Scale and complexity implications of making New Zealand predator-free by 2050 	"M?ori community, New Zealand"	M?ori community; literature review	"Invasive alien mammal predators (e.g. Australian brushtail possum Trichosurus vulpecula, Pacific rat (kiore) Rattus exulans, ship rat R. rattus, Norway rat Rattus norvegicus, stoat Mustela ermina, weasel M. nivalis)"	No data	No data	"Land-use and Sea-use change, Resource extraction, Biodiversity loss"	"The first human settlers started to reduce native biodiversity, gthrough hunting (Perry et al. 2014a), fires (McWethy et al. 2014) and land drainage (Robertson et al. 2019)h and then introduction of IAS."	Economic	rural communities of M?ori started exploiting some IAS to increase their income. 	No data	Invasive predators have devastating effects on native biota.	some IAS are exploited and contribute to the income of the rural communities of M?ori.	"IAS impacted several native species important for food, cultural heritage practices and expressions, and tribal identity"	No data	"The paper deals with the New Zealand predator-free by 2050 (PFNZ 2050) initiative. The eradication of predators would bring to significant gains and opportunities for M?ori. This would be achieved using a variety of techniques (e.g. biocides, trapping, gene-based manipulation methods)."	M?ori are not fully involved in PFNZ 2050 and their requirements and possible impacts on their cultural and working activities have not been completely evaluated (please see the word file for more details).	To protect native species.	Utilisation of invasive species	M?ori started exploit some species for local production (e.g. fur from possum) or for food and other resources (e.g. Pacific rat). Their control could affect these activities. 	No data	No data	"Trade of products from possum created an economy of gvaluable additions individualsf and families incomes in small, predominantly rural M?ori communities with high unemployment high (ca. 15%) and low annual incomesh. (Peltzer et al. 2019)"	"Material and immaterial assets, Social, spiritual and cultural relations"	No data	"Material and immaterial assets: the management of certain alien predators (e.g. possum and Pacific rats) could affect some tribes; on the other side, it could favour native species important for food and other products.
Social, spiritual relationships: predators have altered cultural heritage practices and tribal identity, so their management could reestablish these practices and identity"	"Social stratification, Cultural institutions"	Social stratification: people with low income and high unemployment rate have benefitted from exploiting certain alien predators.	"Cultural institutions: g..predators have significantly impacted the key cultural construct of whakapapa (sequential system that portrays the genealogical connections between the natural world, including humans, and cosmological domain)..h (Pelter et al. 2019)"	"As the Crown did not fully and equally involved M?ori in the PFNZ 2050, the relationship between them could arise conflicts. Moreover, geradicating possums would remove this income source, so alternative local industry opportunities that might arise from a PFNZ 2050 need to be considered in consultation with those who may be affectedh. (Peltzer et al. 2019)"	No data	See conflicts	No data	"""Extensive discussions with M?ori leaders and communities throughout the country are therefore needed well ahead of enacting PFNZ 2050 policy or allocating funds.."" Peltzer et al. 2019"	No data	M?ori consider detrimental the impacts caused by invasive predators on the environment and their culture. How impacts are assessed is not specified.	No data	"Exploiting some invasive species for economic purposes, M?ori could oppose the control on them. "	Maori																																																																													
	"Hanieh Saeedi, Fellow chapter 2"	2021/7/13	"Pienkowski 2015. Alien invasions and livelihoods: Economic benefits of invasive Australian
Red Claw crayfish in Jamaica"	Fishing communities of the Black River Lower Morass (BRLM) of southwest Jamaica	No data	Australian Red Claw crayfish (Cherax quadricarinatus)	Spread	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	"ffThere have been few studies of the effects of C. quadricarinatus on invaded ecosystems, but invasive crayfish have caused significant global impacts, both ecologically and economicallyff (Pienkowski et al. 2015, 74)"	"ffAn important source of income for fishermen within the Black River LowerMorass of Jamaica and supplement incomes during periods when native shrimp (Macrobrachium spp.) catches declineff
Economic and Socioeconomic
ff The mean market value of individual fishermen's daily catch over the 11 months (incorporating seasonal price changes) was US$22.81 with the invasive crayfish making up US$3.53 of that value. Informal discussionswith fishermen indicate that the invasive crayfish is considered to be a by-catch of shrimpharvesting, as opposed to fishermen specifically targeting the invasive species. Additionally, other fishermen also catch the invasive species as by-catch using other fishing gear. Smaller invasive crayfish may not have been separated from the native shrimp catchesc working the mean number of 5.95 days per week, hauling the mean value of 104.82 pots per day, would earn gross revenue of approximately US$7077 per year.ff (Pienkowski et al. 2015, 72)
ff Individuals that are the most dependent on the fishery tend to be those with greater experience. It is these individuals who appear to benefit most from the presence of the invasive crayfishff (Pienkowski et al. 2015, 74)
ff This study has quantified some of the gross economic benefits of the IAS, the Australian Red Claw crayfish. Our results suggest that the invasive crayfish provides an economically significant portion of fishermen's gross revenues, contributing approximately 15% of total catch value across all fishermen during the study period. However, this gross revenue does not occur evenly over time or between individuals.ff (Pienkowski et al. 2015, 73)
"	No data	No data	"ff The benefits of introduced and invasive species to ecosystemsand ecosystemfunctions are underestimated. Such non-native speciesmay fill ecological niches that becomevacant as the result of other anthropogenic factors (or are vacant because of island effects), foster habitat restoration and support ecosystem functions. Introduced species can also provide novel non-timber forest products, bushmeat or other wild harvest products. We share Shackleton et al.'s (2011b) conclusion that there is a need for a more nuanced approach towards the management of IAS that balances both local livelihood needs and wider environmental and social concerns. The positive contributions of IAS need to be recognised and incorporated into environmental management efforts, when considering the eradication of IAS and when calculating the value of invaded ecosystems.ff"	No data	As an income for fishermen	"Utilisation of invasive species, Changes in fishing systems"	No data	"ffThe temporal distribution of incomes has been recognised as an important factor in household economics. Seasonal household liquidity constraints suppress consumption and can lead to periods of cyclical povertyc Fishermen reported that during the dry season they had less income fromshrimp harvesting (supported by our findings), and those that had alternative income generating activities would refocus their efforts on those activities.ff (Pienkowski et al. 2015, 74)"	No data	"ffIn some situations, wealthier households have greater capacity to hunt, consume and sell wild products. The same complexities may also apply to the use of IAS, making the economic implications of removing an invasive species unclear. For example, communities bordering the Chitwan National Park in Nepal use a number of invasive species, including the plant Mikania micrantha. Rai et al. (2012) found that household socioeconomic characteristics influence M. micrantha's perceived value. Those families that were more dependent on forest products incurred more of both the costs and benefits associated with M. micrantha than less forestdependent families. The value of ecosystem services often varies spatially and temporally; the management of invasive species that contribute to ecosystem services should therefore reflect this variabilityc The temporal distribution of household liquidity is also important, especially in the absence of precautionary saving or functioning credit markets. Temporary or seasonal fluctuations in income may lead to corresponding changes in consumption.ff (Pienkowski et al. 2015, 77)"	"Social, spiritual and cultural relations"	Increasing the well-being for poor fishers by increasing the fisheries salaries by fishing the invasive species	No data	Resource tenure	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	Interviews and statistical analyses of the results of the fisheries	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	"Fishing communities, Black River Lower Morass"																																																																													
	"Ellen Ryan-Colton, fellow CH4"	12/07/2021 ERC	"Poland et al 2017. Emerald ash borer, black ash, and Native American basketmaking  "	"Match-E  Be-Nash-She-Wish Band of Pottawatomi Indians of Michigan (the Band), Great Lakes region, USA"	basket makers from this IPLC	"Emerald Ash Borer (EAB) - Agrilus planipennis, invasive forest insect. "	Establishment	"gFirst detected in North America near Detroit, Michigan, in 2002 (Poland and McCullough, 2006), it has since killed hundreds of millions of trees and spread to 31 states and 2 provinces (EAB info, 2017).h (Poland eta l 2017 pg 129)"	Resource extraction	"resource extraction: people are cutting infested black ash and then moving it to different locations where it is split and used for basket-making, contributing to the spread. "	No data	No data	No data	killed millions of black ash trees	No data	"no impacts reported yet, only concerns at this stage that black ash resources will be reduced and black ash trees will be damaged, with flow on to cultural impacts"	"Preventing spread of EAB by submerging logs and therefore killing the EAB, so logs can be moved without spreading EAB. "	"traditional methods (ILK) for preserving black ash wood for basket making is to submerge the wood in water untill it is needed. So this ILK method was trialled as a method to kill EAB and preserve the wood resource for basket-making. 
Black Ash Logs were cut and submerged for various durations (from 1 week to 78 weeks) and then any insects were monitored after to see if they were alive or had died. The timber was also peeled into splints and assessed for usability (colour/Flexibility) for basket making
"	"Results of the submergence varied depending on water temperature,time of year, but overall very efefctive. Submergence killed the EAB and preserved wood for basket-making, so using the ILK method worked well, and helps to make this method of control more locally accepted."	"EAB is very destructive and people are concerned about the impacts on culture and household economies., especially for basket-making."	Conserve / protect threatened species	"Using traditional methods to kill EAB and prevent spread, while still maintaining the same access and usage of resources. "	No data	No data	No changes ? still able to use the black ash resources for basket-making	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	Involved in partnership with western scientists to design the experiment. 	Involved in partnership with western scientists to design the experiment.	No data 	This method could be used to prevent spread of EAB	No data	no IPLC specific data	no IPLC specific data	"EAB threatens cultural traditions and practice of basket-making by killing black ash trees.  The management of EAB is using traditional techniques for preserving black ash wood, and has proved successfful, so the management of IAS has been   a cultural management technique. "	"Pottawatomi tribe, Michigan"																																																																													
	"Elena Tricarico, LA Chpt. 2"	2021/7/18	"Pretty Paint-Small (2013) Linking culture, ecology and policy: the invasion of Russian olive (Elaeagnus angustifolia L.) on the Crow Indian Reservation, South-Central Montana, USA"	"Crow Tribe of south-central Montana, USA, 2010-2011"	"11 Crow Elders (9 males and 2 females) for the interview, 102 Crow people (59 females and 43 males) for the survey"	"Russian olive (Elaeagnus angustifolia L.)
gElaeagnus angustifolia was intentionally planted in the early 20th century along the floodplains of the Little Bighorn and Bighorn Rivers to support a largely non-Indian owned agro-economyc This fast growing species quickly escaped cultivation and is now naturalized within the floodplains of the Crow reservationh. (Pretty Paint-Small 2013)"	Spread	No data	Land-use and Sea-use change	Russian olive has been introduced for field windbreaks and bank stabilization projects.	"Socio-cultural, Politics, governance and institutions"	"Socio-cultural: Russian olive is impacting native woody species (cotton trees) relevant for ceremonies and other relevant use. Thus, threats to these plants are also affecting culture and social relations.   Politics, governance and institutions: the lack of access to lands and their fragmentation do not help the management of the species by Crow people."	No data	"Russian olive outcompeted that native species, becoming the dominant species and altering the invaded riparian and terrestrial ecosystem. "	No data	"Cottonwood species are culturally significant woody species used extensively by Crow people for fire, construction, forage, sacred ceremonies. Russian olive has drastically reduced these native plants, thus impacting their cultural and important use. Moreover, it has drastically altered the landscape view. "	No data	No data	The lack of land access and fragmentation of land ownership do not enable a proper land management by Crow people. 	No data	Changes in tree / forest systems	"Russian olive has heavily affected invaded ecosystems, becoming the dominant species and outcompeting native woody trees used by Crow people for food and other cultural uses. "	No data	No data	"Crow people use native woody plants for food and wood. They do not use Russian olive wood because gc, if you use for fire, it stinksh. (Pretty Paint-Small 2013)"	"Material and immaterial assets, Social, spiritual and cultural relations"	No data	"Russian olive has changed the availability of resources for Crow people, i.e. native woody plant used for food and wood, and for traditional ceremonies. "	"Education/knowledge, Cultural institutions"	No data	g most Crow women purchase chokecherry from a group of Hutterites c who live on private land within the reservation. Comments from community members indicated that they are no longer able to locate this traditional food source in places where they have historically been harvestedc.This loss of place-based knowledge is particularly troublesome as the Crow Elders are unable to pass related storyscapes on sacred or former homestead sites. These stories often pass knowledge that instills values and morals of behavior towards the natural environment.h (Pretty Paint-Small 2013) 	No data	No data	The relationship with federal government and Crow people has been defined by the author paternalistic.	Direct observations/Transfer by old people. Old people who witnessed the species introduction can assess the effects of the Russian olive on their land. Young people can gain the information from old people if those are aware. 	"Management actions are recommended by the author gcnot only to increase biodiversity and health of these ecosystems, but in so doing, preserve Crow traditional plant knowledge and sense of place for future generations.h (Pretty Paint-Small 2013)"	"Old people know that Russian olive is alien, because they witnessed the plantation of this species in their area. On the contrary gcindividuals who were not of age during this earlier time period would have no knowledge that E. angustifolia is an introduced species, unless this type of knowledge were being transferred by older family members during times of harvesting for cottonwood or ash.h (Pretty Paint-Small 2013)"	The direct experience of many Crow people is that Russian olive reduces food and wood necessary for their subsistence and cultural use. 	No data	No data	"Crow tribe, Montana"																																																																													
LV.2	"Tatsiana Lipinskaya, Fellow, Chpt1"	08/07/2021 TL	"Pringle, 2005 -THE NILE PERCH IN LAKE VICTORIA: LOCAL RESPONSES AND ADAPTATIONS "	"fishing communities on six fishing beaches (three in Kenya and three in Uganda), Lake Viktoria. From 1960s until early 2000s"	fifteen fishermen and three former fisheries officials; oral and archival sources. 1-3 hours interview for each person.	"Lates (Nile perch). in Dholuo  - Mbuta, in Luganda - Mputa"	Spread	"The total annual catch  from Lake Victoria in the early 1970s - 100,000 tons per year,  in 1989 -  500,000 tons. Population of Nile perch has declined since the early 1990s"	Land-use and Sea-use change	to widen the range of a 'fine sporting and very edible fish' and to bolster the economic productivity of Lake Victoria's fisheries	No data	No data	No data	loss of biodiversity; decline abundance of native species; 1980s ? 1990s deforestation around the lakeshore due to using firewood for fish-smoking 	"1970-1980s - improving of living conditions. Nowadays, the majority have permanent houses because of mbuta ... we as fishermen have now lived in the line of the employed class ... So there is no gap between a fisherman nowadays and the employed class "	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	"Utilisation of invasive species, Changes in fishing systems"	"Utilisation of invasive species - as a food (some responses) , to make money; Cganges in fishing systems -they used new equipment, strong nets and a sturdy boats with motor"	No data	No data	"Absolute earnings increased roughly twofold between 1988 and 1993, but there were indications that incomes were not keeping pace with rising commodity prices around the lake"	"Health (mental and physical), Social, spiritual and cultural relations"	No data	"Health- spread of HIV because of Labour migrancy. Social relations- 1980s ? 1990s Nile perch industry has restructured family and gender relations. Labour migrancy - husbands now departed for months at a time and frequently neglected to remit food or money to their families. In addition, many fishermen took new wives at the landings they visited, often without informing the first wife. This led some women to remain single. Changes in traditional system of labour division."	Social security	Absolute earnings increased roughly twofold between 1988 and 1993	No data	"Ultimately, despite universal avowals of enthusiasm for the Nile perch itself, there appeared to be a deep-seated ambivalence about its overall effect on life. Asked to speak for the members of his community, Kaloka chairman John Ochola paused. 'The community are happy,' he concluded, 'and on the other hand hey're not happy."	No data	No data	No data	No data	"After first detection of introduced fish - That thing was foreign', explained one old fisherman. 'A foreign thing you cannot just start eating.'.. '"	"They used to say that there's an mputa fish and it can cause diseases.
The community are happy and on the other hand they're not happy."	they know the history of introduction of this fish	No data																																																																														
MM.5 	"M. IKEGAMI, LA Chapter 4, P. HOWARD, LA Chapter 6"	2021/10/6	"Puri, R. 2015. The uniqueness of the everyday: Herders and invasive species in India"	"Malai Mahadeshwara (MM) Hills Wildlife Sanctuary of southern Karnataka - Soliga tribals and Lingayat farmers. approximately 30 Soliga and 80 Lingayat households, 2010s"	"follow people into the forest and observe how Lantana was directly, and indirectly, affecting what they were doing. "	"Lantana camara,  known  locally  as  jeddi  gida  euseless  plantf."	Spread	"Said  to  have  invaded  the  forests  of  Kombudikki  following  the  mast  flowering  and  dieback  of  bamboo  (Bambusa  bambos  (L.)  Voss)  in  the  early  1970s. Lantana   invaded  the  study  area  fairly  recently,  but  by  2001,  as  much  as  80  per  cent  of  the  understory  of  forests  in  MM  Hills  was  reportedly  impacted with  densities  in  dry  deciduous  forest,  the  principal  vegetation  in  the  reserve,  reaching  up  to  2000  stems  per  hectare"	"Climate change, Land-use change, Resource extraction"	"Soliga say that change in weather conditions is exacerbating Lantana spread. Extracting bamboo and clearing dead bamboo opened up forest canopy, allowing spread."	Socio-cultural	"Soliga are highly dependent on forest resources for livestock herding/feed, wild foods, wild craft materials and timber for construction."	May provide nectar and berries for a range of fauna	"1) outcompetes individuals of other species, altering vegetation composition. 2) May impact  faunal biodiversity through its impact on food availability and mobility (the dense and thorny  understory vegetation is impassable to larger animals). 3) Displacement of  native flora has an effect on the fauna that use it, such as driving wild herbivores and predators from the forests. 
4) may have an indirect effect on species composition though its impact on soils, water and other ecological processes"	No data	"1) Increases human-wildlife conflict as wild animals are driven out of the forest. 2) difficulties feeding cattle as it covers up and suppressing fodder grasses. This has led to underfed and malnourished animals, which has weakened them and led to increased vulnerability to disease, injury due to accidents, and attack by wild animals, such as leopards. People fear for their own safety - having to take cattle further into the forest, on to steeper and more marginal terrain, and having to stay longer everyday."	No data	No actions on part of herders to control 	No data	Reduce livestock losses and threats to livestock and human security	Changes in livestock systems	Change herding routes within forests to avoid Lantana and locate palatable species. 	Increasing time spent herding cattle; loss of household labour for cattle herding as young people outmigrate for wage labour.	No data	No data	Material and immaterial assets	No data	"Number of cattle decreasing past ten years due to Lantana - as well as increasing malnutrition and disease. So loss of milk production, plowing and manure, income from sale of calves, collateral for loans, assets sold for marriage"	Cultural institutions		"Cattle are cultural keystone species and, without them, according to the Soliga, life would not be desirable or possible."	No data	No data	No data	Own local observerations and transmitted ILK	No data	"Local name means ""useless plant""."	"1) Increases human-wildlife conflict as wild animals are driven out of the forest. 2) difficulties feeding cattle as it covers up and suppressing fodder grasses. This has led to underfed and malnourished animals, which has weakened them and led to increased vulnerability to disease, injury due to accidents, and attack by wild animals, such as leopards. People fear for their own safety - having to take cattle further into the forest, on to steeper and more marginal terrain, and having to stay longer everyday."	"Soliga say that change in weather conditions is exacerbating Lantana spread. Clearing dead bamboo opened up forest canopy, allowing spread."	Cattle are a cultural keystone species and are being lost - threatening Soliga culture and livelihoods.	"Soliga tribals, MMHills Karnataka"																																																																													
	"M. IKEGAMI, LA Chapter 4"	20210714	Rai & Scarborough. 2012. Invasive plants - Do they devastate or diversify rural livelihoods? Rural farmers' perception of three invasive plants in Nepa	"The selected VDCs were; Bachhauli, Kumroj, Meghauli and Patihani of Chitwan District, and Kawasoti of Nawalparasi District..@ The household visits were carried out during March to May 2009"	"At least 30 households were selected randomly from each of the selected VDCs and a total of 156 households were interviewed.
The household heads from the systematically selected households were interviewed using a questionnaire (Appendix A). The first household was selected randomly and then every following 10th household was interviewed. Each interview took about an hour. Of the respondents 53% were male and 84% had agriculture as a primary occupation "	"Mikania micrantha: Banmara/Banmasa lahara, Bire lahara, Jyanmara seto lahara, Lahare ghans/jhar, Maobadi jhar, Tite jhar   
Lantana camara: Banmara, Bhadbhadiya, Boke, Boksekada, Kadejhar, Pat ganaune lahara, Pire jhar, Pologhas, Sarelu kada, Satraji jhar 
Chromolaena odorata: Banmara, Seula jhar, Bhatbhate kada, Pahade banmara, Seto banmara, Thulo banmara, Tite banmara, Banmasa"	Spread	"We speculate that Chromolaena was the first species introduced in Nepal, and that it was@followed by Lantana, and Mikania respectively.
Mikania as increasing rapidly over the last 5?10 years (Table 2). With respect to Lantana the majority of respondents (72.5%) felt that the species was increasing gradually, while less than seven percent considered that the area covered by the species was decreasing. On the contrary, there was no clear consensus about the spread of Chromolaena and whether it was increasing or decreasing. "	No data	"The role of accidently introduced invasive plants on rural livelihoods is rarely understood. Typically, accidently introduced species such as Chromolaena, and Lantana, are likely to cause economic and environmental harm "	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No Data	No data	"more than one-third (35%) of respondents suggested that there are gno control measuresh for these species. They expressed the view that invasive plants can be controlled by nature, for example, floods can wash them away. Twenty-eight percent of the respondents suggested that uprooting was the most effective way to constraint the infestation, which was followed by burning (12%), chemical/herbicide use (11%) and cutting (9%) (P173)"	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	Resource tenure	"All invasive plants were being used as fodder for goats, particularly during the dry season, when other grass and fodder were not available. Of the three species, Chromolaena had a wide range of uses, whilst Mikania was being used only as goat fodder. Chromolaena was commoditised as compost through human intervention with external support and the users of Chromolaena outnumbered the non-users as the species offered various products required for their daily livelihood (P172)  
Mikania micrantha : Fodder (during the winter mainly Goat grazes)
Lantana camara Fuelwood, Fodder, Medicine (on cut)
Chromolaena odorata Fuelwood, Fencing, Composting, Fodder, Bio-pesticide, Medicine"	No data 	No data	"A total of 21 user committees with 44,918 households manage the BZ (DNPWC, 2011). Forest@patches in the BZ are managed by the residents of the BZ as members of@buffer zone community forest user groups (BZCFUGs). "	No data	No data 	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	Tharu people																																																																													
MM.8	"Esra Per, Fellow Chapter 3"	2021/11/7	"Ranjan, R. 2019. Deriving double dividends through linking payments for ecosystem services to environmental entrepreneurship: The case of the invasive weed Lantana camara"	Local community in Karnataka's Bandipur Tiger Reserve (BTR) 	"Local community, This modelling at how to support an organization based on commercializing an invasive weed that is quickly spreading. This study was based on the optimal response of a forest reserve manager whose purpose was to protect tigers who were being harmed by the invasive lantana weed. "	the invasive weed Lantana camara 	Spread	"In Karnataka's Bandipur Tiger Reserve (BTR), dense lantana plants have overrun nearly 60% of the reserve "	Climate change	"Climate change: invasive plants?and iconic species' growth rates in reserve areas?may be influenced by external pressures such as forest fires, hunting, and climate change"	No data	No data	"It has been discovered that it provides a safe haven for wild animals in natural parks. Because of its antibacterial benefits, it is said to have therapeutic effects "	"Negative: Aside from displacing local biodiversity, lantana reduces the production of a few agricultural products, including coffee, sugarcane, and others (Sharma et al., 2005). Leading to a decrease in lantana density, the main scenario results in a growing tiger population over time according to model (Ranjan, 2019, 164)."	"Lantana plants could be used to make household items, providing local populations with a source of income "	No data	No data	"All eradication efforts to restrict these weeds over the past two centuries have been futile because to their high rate of spread and resistance to most techniques of management. In lantana-infested protected areas, current management tactics have evolved away from eradication and toward damage mitigation "	"When there is a possibility of harm done due to low profitability, the manager must make additional compensation. Managers of forest reserves may lack sufficient resources and find it uneconomical to control plants on their own. It may prove difficult to enlist community support for the lantana-based work "	No data	Utilisation of invasive species	The plants are turned into saleable household products by the community 	No data	the model considers a specific situation where the resource manager is unable to control the weeds on their own due to prohibitive costs and depends on the local community's cooperation.	"In 25 years, the density of lantana decreases. The harvesting rate, on the other hand, decreases with time when the forest management lowers the remuneration. When salaries in the lantana-based business decline, the income generated from selling lantana goods is insufficient to keep the community involved in the business "	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	The societal value put on iconic animals (such as tigers) within the forest reserve has a significant impact on the manager's lantana management strategies. 	"The success of weed control initiatives can be determined by societal factors. The greater the size of the community, the greater the environmental benefits of the enterprise, as the management may gather more weeds while paying lower salaries "	No data	" If lantana spreads and drives out native plant species, herbivore populations that rely on these plants may decline. This, in turn, would have an impact on the population of carnivore predators "	No data	"This plant species has the potential to boost rural livelihoods, but it also has the ability to disrupt small-scale populations' current livelihood prospects "	No data	No data	"Local communities, Karnataka, Bandipur Tiger Reserve (BTR) "																																																																													
	"Esra Per, Fellow Chapter 3"	2021/11/7	"Ranwala, S. M. W., and Thushari, P. G. I. 2012. Current status and management options for invasive plants at the Mihintale Wildlife Sanctuary"	"Mihintale, Sri Lanka's first recorded Wildlife Sanctuary in the Anuradhapura district of the North-Central Province of Sri Lanka "	"Adult residents were interviewed. Researchers examined the diversity and abundance of Invasive Alien Plants (IAP) in the five land use zones defined using stratified random sampling plots. The state of aquatic and ground biodiversity was assessed using biodiversity indices. A questionnaire was utilized to determine the villagers' invasion history, awareness level, interaction with human activities, and management strategies (n=60) "	"Terrestrial plants: Lantana camara, Chromolaena odorata, Panicum maximum, Pennisetum polystachyon, Tithonia diversifolia, Leucaena leucocephala. Aquatic plants: Salvinia molesta, Hydrilla (Hydrilla verticillata), Hambu (Typha angustifolia) and Nelumbo (Nelumbo nucifera). Seeds: Common Ipil ipil (Leucaena leucocephala) Mimosa invisa, Mikania cordata, Chromolaena odorata.
"	Spread	"The spread of Lantana camara and Chromolaena odorata was the greatest, extending up to 25 meters into the forest. The most common aquatic IAP was Salvinia. The maximum number of germinable IAP seeds were found in the topsoil layer "	Land-use and Sea-use change	"Land-use and sea change: Irrigated cultivations, and residential gardens blight the area within and around the sanctuary's perimeter.  Forest disturbances including canopy loss and gap creation have been proven to boost Lantana Camara's ability to inhibit native species by increasing resource acquisition and space use. Variations in soil moisture levels may be factors influencing invasive plant establishment, rapid growth, reproduction, and spread in the area."	Economic	"Economic: Because the people did not have the habit to collect of the plants or propagules trapped in nets after usage, fishing nets were responsible for the introduction of aquatic IAP from one tank to another. Nutrients provided by plant waste at dumping sites may be factors influencing invasive plant establishment, rapid growth, reproduction, and spread in the area."	No data	"Above-ground observations on invasive plants only indicate a portion of the diversity, and seed storage underground is critical for regeneration capacity"	"IAP are being used by the people as fodder, food, weaving material, and therapeutic properties. Except the utilization of Salvinia and Naththasooriya (Tithonia diversifolia) as green manure, locals were unaware of the potential commercial uses of IAP"	"Lantana camara and Chromolaena odorata have been found to affect native species richness and abundance. Lantana camara has been observed to impede native species recruitment and change ecosystem services, particularly in disturbed areas where the cover is greater than 75%"	No data	" insufficient attention and effort to discover infestations, as well as a lack of timely management actions, had jeopardized the possibility to eliminate IAS. using IAP as green manure could be supported and promoted further for management"	No data	"Early 85% of the villagers expressed ""their commitment towards eradicating etroublesome speciesf as they identified such plants to be competitors, disease carriers, toxic plants and species that interfere with their day-to-day activities such as bathing, washing of clothes and fishing"""	Utilisation of invasive species	Utilisation of invasive species: It had been a traditional practice to use dried Salvinia molesta as fertilizer by farmers inhabiting the Kudakirindegama tank area and this clearly coincided with the low abundance of Salvinia molesta in these premises 	No data	"Increasing local people's awareness will add more value to their lives, allowing them to be the most effective guardians of the Mihintale Sanctuary's terrain while lowering the strain and costs on the Sri Lankan government to monitor and manage the alien invaders "	"Inhabitants commented that ""aquatic IAP were more problematic than terrestrial IAP as the spread of IAP in tanks has been a major problem for their day-to-day activities"". "	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	"Residents' home gardens are kept weed-free, clean, and swept on a regular basis. Mechanical means such as cutting, hand pulling, and hoeing have helped to curb the growth of Lantana camara and Chromolaena odorata within household gardens, but the forest boundary has become a major dumping ground for these plant detritus. "	"During the ePoson Poya programs,' residents welcomed the attention and help provided by relevant government officials in clearing aquatic invasive alien species. They also voiced dissatisfaction with the lack of attention given to terrestrial IAP. Almost all communities showed an interest in participating in community programs aimed at eliminating IAP in the Mihintale Sanctuary "		"More opportunities for community participation in successful IAP management would be created if villagers were more aware of the ""do's and don'ts with IAP."" "	Villagers indicate that big problematic species exist despite their lack of grasp of IAP and/or related terms	Lantana camara and Chromolaena odorata encroachment are particularly dangerous in the Mihintale Sanctuary's woodlands. They are extremely degraded interconnecting sections of forests and scrub lands that have been subjected to varied degrees of villagers' disturbance 	It was clear that peoples' lack of understanding of IAP biology and ecology had resulted in the casual transfer of plant components from their backyard gardens to the forest boundary	"Mihintale, being a historically significant sacred pilgrimage place where Buddhist philosophy and biodiversity protection concepts were first introduced to Sri Lanka."	"Mihintale Wildlife Sanctuary, adult residents, "																																																																													
	"Hanieh Saeedi, Fellow chapter 2"	2021/7/15	"Reedy 2016. Kelp-Fed Beef, Swimming Caribou, Feral Reindeer, and Their Hunters: Island Mammals in a Marine Economy"	"Aleutian Islands and Alaska Peninsula residents, It was a comprehensive subsistence study of four communities (Port Heiden, Nelson Lagoon, False Pass, and Akutan) in advance of potential oil and gas exploration in Bristol Bay, 2009-2012; and Unalaska, Nikolski, Atka, and Adak, 2012-2016"	Both studies involved interviews with key informants and comprehensive household surveys with all available households in each community.  	"Land mammals ranging from beef and dairy cattle to buffalo to caribou, the primary land mammal, caribou, is only found naturally on the Alaska Peninsula and Unimak Island, the easternmost island in the Aleutians, colonized likely through swimming across False Pass."	Introduction 	"In the Aleutians, the introduction of non-Native land mammals was first carried out by Russian colonizers.
ff Domestic reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus) were introduced in several Alaskan sites in thelate 1800s by Sheldon Jackson, the Commissioner of Education in Alaska, as development initiativesand to prevent famine after low caribou populations and overexploitation by commercial whalersleft  many  villages  destitute.   The  plan  was  also  to  assist  Eskimo  communities  in  transitioningfrom hunter-gatherers to become more industrialized, cash based, and economically secure.Many other arctic societies were using domestic or semi-domesticated reindeer, which became culturalfoundations in Siberia and Scandinavia amongst the Saami, Nenets, Koryak, Chukchi, for example, but are not native to North America. Jackson brought reindeer from Siberia and indigenous Saamipeople from Scandinavia to Alaska to assist in the development of the Seward Peninsula herdingproject and teach the Alaska Natives to be nomadic herders. Soon more Scandinavians thanAlaska Natives owned reindeer, prompting the Reindeer Act restricting ownership to Alaska Nativesin 1937. The Reindeer Service arm of the Bureau of Indian Affairs was created and managed grazingpermits, herding activities, and range conditions. More recently, the University of Alaska,Fairbanks, maintains a research program dedicated to the development and promotion of reindeerhusbandry on the Seward Peninsula.  The current 21 herders and 20,000 reindeer on the SewardPeninsula are members of the Reindeer Herders Association of Kawerak, Inc., the regional non-profitNative Corporation of the Seward Peninsula communities. These reindeer compete with the native Western Arctic Caribou Herd (Rangifer tarandus granti) for pasture and are defended and protected by their owners. The Kawerak Reindeer Herders Association has assisted with logistics and advocacy in the development of reindeer herds in several Alaskansites, including the Aleutian and Pribilof Islands of St. Paul and Umnak Island, and more recently in Port Heidenff (Reedy 2016, 7).
eff Sheldon Jacksonfs early experiments in reindeer husbandry began in the Aleutians. He campaigned for support for his reindeer plan and raised funds to travel to Siberia in 1891.ff (Reedy 2016, 7).
eff On Atka Island, 40 reindeer were introduced in 1914 to create a cash economy once sea otter hunting was banned.ff (Reedy 2016, 14).
ff This reindeer herding effort is a reintroduction from the early 1920s. The U.S. Reindeer Service  established  herds  on  the  Alaska  Peninsula  in  the  early  1900s  to  help  the  communities  devastated by the 1918 Influenza Epidemicff (Reedy 2016, 15).
"	No data	No data	Economic	"Economic
ff Land mammals ranging from beef and dairy cattle to buffalo to caribou have been introduced to keyisland sites for the purposes of supporting the islandsf people and those living throughout the region. Some of these ventures had commercial intent and mixed success and others are purely to provide food ina volatile marine economy. All of these communities experience extremely high shipping costs for groceries.ff (Reedy 2016, 1).
Food 
ff Every remote Aleutian and western Alaska Peninsula community has introduced land mammals on their peninsula landscapes, home islands, or on nearby accessible islands, and uses these introduced species for food ... Calculated and expensive decisions to introduce land mammals to other locations have supported local people for two centuries.ff (Reedy 2016, 2-3).
ef Most of the early introductions of species to Aleutian communities were as domestic animals for the purposes of furnishing people with meat and milk, income, and entertainment.ff (Reedy 2016, 7).
"	Bring diversity to the community	Caribou damaged wildlife and habitat	"Beneficial, food, hunting opportunity, increased economy
ffIn some of these Aleutian cases, indigenous peoples are becoming pastoralists and herders, providing their animals with water, food, and protection from predators. In most other cases, the people have created a feral, wild land mammal hunting opportunity in which the foraging lifestyle is maintained. They have also created sport hunting opportunities to support their local economies.ff (Reedy 2016, 3).
"	"Harmful
Caribou damaged historical and cultural sites. 
"	No data	ffFederal managers have mandates to control invasive species on federal lands and restore native species. AMNWR personnel have taken a hardline approach to removing feral livestock as 	The modern political and environmental landscape has commercialized many wild fish species and constrained access to local resources	"ff The few cases of land mammals in the Aleutians currently targeted by federal managers for removal are a subset of conditions in a broader region that contends with subsistence access issues, environmental risk to foods, and high shipping and travel costs to obtain food but generally enjoys a variety of abundant wild foods for those with time, skills, equipment, health status, and income sufficient to support a hunting and fishing lifestyle. "	"Utilisation of invasive species, Changes in livestock systems, Manage invasive species as a resource , Changes in fishing systems, Changes in wild resource systems"	No data	"Port Heiden (population 100) has struggled with the closure of caribou since 2006. It is a dietarystaple that ghas become a delicacyh on the Alaska Peninsula because of closures to hunting and lowabundance, according to one local hunter. gOur subsistence life has changed a lot since the caribou aregoneh, he said,gYou canft make stew out of caribou tracksh. Caribou and moose meat formerly formed62 percent of the diet in 1987 [46] and only 23 percent of the diet in 2009 [47]. Port Heiden residentsreported buying more store bought food since caribou hunting closed. gIfve never seen so much beefcome into this town beforeh, said one hunter. gI used to buy zero. Now itfs about $4,000 a year in beefh.He added, gI donft even like it. Wefre getting used to ith. Another woman mentioned her beef costsas $600 for a box but $1,000 for freight costs to get it to Port Heiden"	No data	No data	"Safety and security, Material and immaterial assets, Health (mental and physical), Social, spiritual and cultural relations, Freedom of choice or action"	No data	No data	"Resource tenure, Cultural institutions"	No data	No data	No data	"ffRefuge staff began a scoping process for removal of cattle from refuge lands on Wosnesenski Island in 2014, a former Aleut village.. These plans and their execution were cause of alarm amongst island residents who depends on the animal resources of their region.ff (Reedy 2016, 2).
ff Land mammals are thus subject to locally unwanted removal both by wolves and federal managersin the region. The local response in the Port Heiden case was to attempt to maintain hunting traditionsusing a legal exception available to them (ceremonial hunts) and later to introduce new species toalleviate food shortages and create a reliable supply for the community. The response in the Adak casewas to protest the culling of caribou until it was scheduled by federal managers, and then accept themeat donated to them.ff (Reedy 2016, 2).
"	No data	No data	Gathering more support for IAS management and supportign the community by providing the food security	"People living in the Aleutians find it perfectly rational to increase their food supply and diversity on their local lands. Their sense of the islands are as places to develop to support their communities where possible. Still gFederal agencies now have to recognize that native plants and animals have an inherent right to existh, the gbureaucratic and symbolic capital of wildlife increasedh [22]. These agencies are also interested in supporting consumers of wild landscapes, such as birders and wildlife viewers, which are a specialized, seasonal group in the Aleutians, and are infrequent enough to be considered significant contributors to the local economy. They do not contend with food shortages or extreme costs for basic supplies. People on the islands are left wondering who benefits from these actions at allff"		"Introduction of the invasive land mammals brought food security, and hunting opportunities for the IPLC"	"If remove or decrease the IAS, the hunting and traditional cultures will be impacted foe the IPLC"	Aleutian Islander and Alaska Peninsula subsistence peoples																																																																													
	"Cristina Preda, LA, Chpt. 4"	2021/7/21	"Reo, 2017. Invasive Species, Indigenous Stewards, and Vulnerability Discourse"	"Indigenous people in the United States and Canada, 2013-2014"	"natural resource and cultural agency staff from Indigenous nations along with subsistence practitioners and artisans such as basket makers, online survey"	"Invasive species in general, e.g. Phragmites australis (common reed), moths feeding on berry bushes, Agrilus planipennis (the emerald ash borer), salt-cedar, Elaeagnus angustifolia (the Russian olive), knotweed"	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	"partnerships with non- Indigenous governments, nongovernmental or nonprofit organizations; ""education programs to recruit public participation in prevention efforts""; code or formal Indigenous governmental policies eg. protocols for people working in the field"	"various ways (e.g. hand pulling, mowing, chemical treatments, fire, hunting, biological controls, grazing) but also education programs and traditional knowledge (e.g. ceremonies to support native species) "	"poor communication within the established partnerships; lack of funding; ""[lack] the knowledge of how to implement removal methods"".A representative from the Caldwell First Nation in Ontario indicated, gWe are [often] not informed that a new species has taken root until it is already too late and then we are dealing with damage control."" A representative from the Menominee Nation considered using fire but was unsure gwhether it would help reduce the invasive, or prepare the area to be invaded.h "	No data	Conserve / protect threatened species	"gData suggest that no single adaptation measure is more commonly used than others. More than half (53 percent) of respondents have documented traditional knowledge and practices about threatened native species. Almost half have shared adaptive strategies with other Indigenous nations (47 percent), saved seeds from threatened native species (47 percent), and/or traveled farther than normal for harvest (46 percent). Twenty- seven percent have transplanted plants or animals to new locations to protect them from invasive species.h (Reo et al 2017, 209-210)"	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	Education/knowledge	"gSurvey responses provided some insights into the ways traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) factors into Indigenous groupsf interactions with invasive species. For instance, 54 percent of respondents indicated that their nation is actively documenting their communityfs TEK about native plants and animals (or human-animal and human-plant relationships) threatened by invasive species. [...] Documenting TEK often means documenting the knowledge held by a communityfs elders. The Nanwalek IRA Council in Alaska indicated that they are gathering information from their elders about ways to enhance berry populations impacted by invasive species. In Maine and Michigan, ash tree gathering methods are being documented to show not only methods of locating and harvesting appropriate trees but also family and tribal stories associated with traditional gathering areas."" (Reo et al 2017, 210-211)"	No data	No data	"""Indigenous nationsf invasive species work is generally underreported in the literature but includes communication and education initiatives, scientific research that tests new stewardship strategies, ecosystem restoration through Indigenous knowledge, and adaptation of cultural practices to account for changing conditions, including incorporating introduced species into Indigenous food systems. Thus, Indigenous nationsf responses to invasive species include all of the generalized steps taken by settler governments and NGOs plus some unique, culturally informed strategies reported in the literature;h (Reo et al 2017, 201-202) gcSome of these same respondents indicated that they factor in eldersf perspectives and TEK [traditional ecological knowledge] when determining their invasive species response strategies, like the Sokaogon or Mole Lake Band of the Lake Superior Chippewa: gWe have to be real careful how we combat the invasives because our elders wonft allow us to use herbicides in some areas so we have to hand pull those protected areas. Which is fine with us because we respect their wishes.hh (Reo et al 2017, 211)"	"authors express concerns about g... characterizations of Native peoples as vulnerable, gendangered others.h This rhetorical trend has potentially serious implications for Indigenous nations and their citizens. Our primary concerns about this trend are the power dynamics at play and the political implications of these power dynamics.h (Reo et al 2017, 214) gOur study indicates that invasive species management is one area where Indigenous groups are utilizing Western science alongside Indigenous knowledge approaches to protect culturally significant Indigenous plants and animals as well as places.h (Reo et al 2017, 217)"	"gcthey [Indigenous people] are finding ways to build self- determining capacities by harnessing Western science, connecting this form of science to Indigenous knowledge and including Indigenous forms of science where appropriate. Third, Indigenous responses to and interactions with invasive species provide opportunities to renew and expand Indigenous knowledges, including determining the nature of novel relationships between Indigenous peoples and invasive species.h (Reo et al 2017, 218)"	"gFrom an ethical or human rights perspective, Indigenous nations need to be directly involved in developing any environmental change policies that aim to generate, or happen to constrain, future options for their societies."" (Reo et al 2017, 214-215)"	No data	"gRespondents were most concerned about environmental impacts, then cultural impacts, then economic impacts (table 2). A substantive majority (83 percent) of respondents reported that they were gvery concernedh about the impacts to overall health of ecosystems, while 76 percent were gvery concernedh about impacts to specific populations of indigenous plants and animals. Respondents noted that invasive species reduce the overall availability of essential resources, including water in semiarid environments and flora and fauna populations that have traditionally been staples in food and material cultures.""(Reo et al 2017, 211-212) gSixty- two percent of respondents were gvery concernedh about the impacts of invasive species on both local food systems and communal traditional ecological knowledge, and 53 percent were gvery concernedh about impacts on cultural identity..h (Reo et al 2017, 213) gOverall, respondents were less worried about the potential economic consequences of invasive species. Responses averaged just below gsome-what concernedh (2.74) on a four-point Likert scale. The impact on an Indigenous nation businessfs ability to generate revenue was of least concern. However, individuals still do have their livelihoods on the line. One Mississauga respondent worried, gIf emerald ash borer gets in here, wefll lose good basket and bow wood. I depend on bow making and basketry to make an income.h (Reo et al 2017, 213) more quotes included in the text"	No data	"""Following impacts by invasive species, 16 percent have shifted their reliance to alternative species. This includes forgoing more traditional foods that are less abundant or more at risk, as well as harvesting edible invasive plants. Fifteen percent have maintained skills or expertise following invasive species impacts by using alternative materials (e.g., basket makers using alternative materials)."" (Reo et al 2017, 210) ""....Thirty- nine percent of respondents use ceremonies to honor Indigenous plant and animal population, and 21 percent of respondents said their Indigenous nation has used ceremonies specifically to help native species impacted by introduced species. Some of these same respondents indicated that they factor in eldersf perspectives and TEK when determining their invasive species response strategies, like the Sokaogon or Mole Lake Band of the Lake Superior Chippewa: gWe have to be real careful how we combat the invasives because our elders wonft allow us to use herbicides in some areas so we have to hand pull those protected areas. Which is fine with us because we respect their wishes.hh (Reo et al 2017, 211) gA representative from the Ketchikan Indian Community commented that ghardly anyone collects our [medicinal plants] for medication and that knowledge is being lost.h One Akwesasne Mohawk respondent noted that the loss of native species and subsequent decreased use has resulted in loss of their native language associated with those species.h (Reo et al 2017, 213)
gWhile our results confirm that Indigenous nation citizens are concerned about the cultural impacts of invasive species (table 2), open-ended responses to our survey indicate that Indigenous citizens regard their cultures as more or less resilient to environmental change. For instance, one Anishinaabe respondent stated, gAt this point the problem isnft so bad as to affect tribal identity or traditional knowledge.hh (Reo et al 2017, 216)
"	VARIOUS																																																																													
AP.2	"Patricia Howard, LA Chpt. 6"	2021/7/7	Rettberg 2010. Contested narratives of pastoral vulnerability and risk in Ethiopiafs Afar region. Rettberg & M?ller-Mahn 2012.  Human-environment interactions: the invasion of Prosopis Juliflora in the drylands of Northeast Ethiopia	"Afar region, Ethiopia. 2005?2007. More than 20 pastoral Afar clans of Baadu. Baadu was an important agro-ecological area due the constant availability of water and abundant fertile grasslands  along the Awash River. the Afar from Baadu were known to be among the wealthiest clans all over Afar"	"53 interviews with men and women of the Afar clans in Baadu, plus Governmental representatives in Addis Ababa. Narrative and biographical interviews, group discussions, selected tools of participatory rural appraisal (PRA) and ethnographical methods of observation. A quantitative survey on structural livelihood conditions."	"Prosopus juliflora, locally named Woyane. exotic mimosa plant species, thorny drought- and salt-tolerant shrub."	Spread	"1980s  intentional introduction around state farms and settlements to improve the microclimate and give shade. In 1986, a few years after introduction, Prosopis could not be tracked on satellite images. After the collapse of state farms at the beginning of the 1990s, spread  out of control. From 2001?2005 the area in Baadu covered by dense Prosopis juli?ora forests more than doubled and amounted to 83 km?. The comparison of satellite images shows the continuous explosive spread within the last ten years. In 2000 36 km? were already covered by dense Prosopis thickets. In the following seven years the invaded area almost quadrupled. In 2007 it was 128 km? and in 2010 the infested areas in Baadu had increased to 250 km? "	"Climate change, IAS, Land-use and Sea-use change"	"Climate change: severe drought in 2002/03 from which herds could not be recovered, unlike previous drought periods. IAS: P. julifora replaced native grass species, the main fodder resource for cattle. Cattle and warthogs  eat and spread seeds; Land use change: Since the 1960s - establishment and abandonment of large-scale commercial irrigation agriculture along the Awash Riverctraditional dry season communal grazing areas were transformed and pastoralists  increasingly displaced, resulting in a reduction of pastoral mobility and overstocking within the remaining grazing area. Most rainy season pastures have been lost due to the chronic violent conflict with Issa-Somali pastoralists, which displaced the Afar from large parts of their rainy season grazing areas. Within the last 70 years the Afar clans from Baadu have been pushed about 150 km westwards by the Issa from their traditional rainy season pastures."	"Science, technology, and knowledge, Politics, governance and institutions, Demographic , Economic, Socio-cultural"	"Technology: establishment of irrigation farms and hydraulic infrastructure has additionally altered flood regimes and led to a salinification of the soils, conditions which have fostered the spread of Prosopis. Fallow, previously irrigated agricultural areas with highly salinised soils were rapidly colonised by Prosopis;  Temporal flooding patterns altered, also spreading Prosopis. Politics: Introduction of P. juliflora to rehabilitate 'degraded' dryland areas. While the Afar  wanted to maintain political autonomy, the state sought to integrate the Afar into its state-building processclocal elites were co-opted and local institutions  increasingly weakened. Afar region is  perceived as a culturally and economically backward region, characterized by an inef?cient  production and an archaic way of life, which needs to be developedc governmental actors claim the responsibility to take decisions for the bene?t of the pastoralists. Southern territories were  claimed as of the pan-Somalian state of a egreater Somaliaf; part of the northern territory of Afar was claimed by Eritrea. These con?icts erupted in several wars that  Chronic violent conflict with Issa-Somali pastoralists. Economic: After state abandoned its farms, some Afar clans claimed their customary land rights and started to lease out  land to private agricultural investors. Demographic: Limited migration alternatives for mobile pastoralists.Foads were built, opening up the region, and migrants from drought-stricken highland regions moved to the lowland farms and road settlements. Economic: few economic alternatives for pastoralists; those that exist cannot compensate for loss of livestock."	None reported.	P. juliflora replaced native grass species; reduced native biodiversity.	"1990s - pastoralists started to use the branches of Prosopis as a source of firewood, thorny fences and as additional feed for animals."	Leads to abandonment of grazing land. Limits access to water points. 	None attempted.	"When Prosopis was introduced in the 1980s, neither the local extension agents nor the pastoralists had any knowledge about the invasive potential of Prosopis or about measures to control its spread. Instead they were even enforcing its planting and fighting for its protection After negative effects of P. juliflora became apparent,  no governmental measures were taken then to control the spread of Prosopis. In a workshop on agricultural weeds in 1999, officials came to the conclusion that Prosopis should be eradicated since its negative effects outweighed its benefits. Pastoralists eradicate Prosopis in order to produce and sell charcoal and firewood..Many pastoralists, including women and children, also get small per diem wages of less than $1 for the clearing of Prosopis juliflora from land that has been leased by the clans to private investors for the purpose of irrigation agriculture. Agropastoralists: With simple tools and the help of relatives they constantly remove Prosopis from their plots, a hard, laborious task that exceeds the capacity of households with only few members. British NGO FARM Africa - have developed a management approach which includes the production of charcoal out of Prosopis, the reclamation of the cleared land for crop and pasture production and the use of the crushed pods for animal feed"	"Efforts to eradicate Prosopis have proved to be extremely costly and mostly ineffective. Charcoal production-  excludes those without sufficient access to human or financial capital, since they cannot afford to hire migrants from the Highlands as employees  nor do they have the knowledge or physical capacity to engage in the production process. Agropastoralists: lack of access to sufficient labour especially as most must also work off-farm. Even commercial farms have collapsed due to lack of funds to control - control only achieved on commercial farms using wage labour."	"Control through use' - income from charcoal production. Eradication to allow grazing and agropastoralism, human and livestock mobility, etc."	"Abandonment, Utilisation of invasive species, Changes in cropping systems, Changes in livestock systems, Changes in wild resource systems"	"Abandonment:  the con?ict with the Issa involves loss of human life and  loss of animals in raids, but the loss of land plays a prominent role in local perceptions due to its economic as well as symbolic function of grazing land. Livestock systems: Instead of moving animals at the beginning of the rainy season to pastures up to 150 km eastward, the Afar now move year round within a radius of approximately 25 km. This has fostered soil degradation due to overgrazing and higher dissemination rates of seeds within the remaining grazing areas. Grazing became individualised rather than collective; young herders forced to bear arms. Cropping systems: some Afar clans claimed lease out land to investors..land acquired a monetary value, radically altering common property regimes."	Primarily women are engaged in income-generating activities like picking cotton in order to substitute milk de?cits through the sale of grain. Control on agricultural land is exceedingly labour intensive and must be done year-round. 	Many agropastoralists lack sufficient labour to control Prosopis as they must also work off-farm.	"Loss of livestock; loss of milk yields. While pastoralism became less feasible, the importance of non-pastoral income sources increased."	"Material and immaterial assets, Safety and security, Freedom of choice or action"	No data 	"Assets: is primarily women who are engaged in income-generating activities like picking cotton in order to substitute milk de?cits through the sale of grain. Loss of livestock, impoverishment and food insecurity.  Safety& security compromised through violent conflict. Freedom of choice or action severely constrained as Afar have little power."	"Social stratification, Governance institutions , Settlement / land use, Resource tenure, Cultural institutions"	"Most pastoralists (who were considered wealthy) now belong to the poor or the destitute, affected by chronic food insecurity and impoverishment. Only  clan leaders and a few elders bene?t from leasing land and hiring out labour for P. juliflora control to agribusinesses. "	"Social stratification: Most pastoralists (who were considered wealthy) now belong to the poor or the destitute, affected by chronic food insecurity and impoverishment. Only  clan leaders and a few elders bene?t from leasing land and hiring out labour for P. juliflora control to agribusinesses. Governance institutions: clan leadersf capacity and willingness to act for collective welfare is questioned and members feel they are not being fairly represented. Settlement/land use: Afar forced to sedentarise, grazing area highly restricted, leading to overgrazing and degradation.  Resource tenure: The process of land commodi?cation and monetarization radically altered traditional common property regimes. Exclusive forms of land tenure appeared next to common grazing areas, and territorial claims became a highly contested topic among Afar clans. Cultural institutions: New values and practices focusing on the exclusive acquisition of monetary pro?t are currently con?icting with the egalitarian eculture of sharingf supported by traditional values like solidarity, cooperation, reciprocal arrangements and collective wealth."	"Chronic violent conflict with Issa-Somali pastoralists has displaced the Afar from large parts of their rainy season grazing areas. The government doesn't intervene in this conflict and even insisted that the Afar disarm. Selling clan lands to private investors: Exclusive forms of land tenure appeared next to common grazing areas, and territorial claims became a highly contested topic among Afar clans, leading to a signi?cant increase in violent clan con?icts over land along the Awash river."	No data	No data	No data	"Given that farmers indicated that they lack resources to effectively manage speargrass, development of improved technology which do not demand high monetary investment should be a priority"	No data	"Averaged over ecological zones, the presence of spear-grass was undesirable because farmers felt, in decreasing order of importance, that it reduces crop yield, limits field size to that family labour can handle, increases labour requirements for weeding, causes physical injury to the skin, reduces quality of tuber crops, increases the occurrence of bush fires in perennial crops, and increases the incidence of insects and pathogens of economic crops. The negative effects of speargrass were given different rating depending on the . 21-26% report crop yield loss; 7-10% report increases fire hazard; 4-5% report harbours pests/diseases. 26-24% report limits farm size; 14-19% report requires more labour; 16-18% report harms skin."	No data	"Use of Imperata for medicine, roof thatching, livestock fodder."	"Afar pastoralists, Awash basin "																																																																													
LV.3	"Hanieh Saeedi, Fellow chapter 2"	2021/7/14	"Riedmiller, 1994. Lake Victoria fisheries: the Kenyan reality and environmental implications"	"Lake Victoria, Africa, and a case study on Wichlum Beach in the Siaya District is among the most productive landing sites for Nile perch on the Kenyan shore of Lake Victoria. This is due, to a certain extent, to the well-organised Fishermen's Cooperative there, which has about 380 members, of whom about 80 own a banana 'mtungi' boat."	No data	"Nile perch, Lates niloticus"	Establishment	"Established after 1952. The Nile perch, or 'mbuta' as it is locally known, is a fast-growing, predatory fish that can reach weights of over 100 kg. L. niloticus is endemic to the upper Nile system, e.g. lakes Albert and firkana in East Africa, but was not previously found in Lake Victoria. Today it is the most widespread species there and has become the backbone of the commercial fishery. (Riedmiller 1994, 330)."	No data	No data	"Economic, Politics, governance and institutions"	No data	No data	"Negative
Reducing the native species richness and biomass
Deforestation on a number of islands in Lake Victoria
"	"
"	"Harmful: decline of the fishery for indigenous tilapias
Beneficial: One sector of the fishery in Lake Victoria has benefitted from the Nile perch introduction"	No data	"ff The increased economic viability of the fishery has attracted professionals into the industry and resulted in the development of an export-oriented trade. The Yala Swamp adjacent to Lake Victoria has been extensively drained as part of a large land reclamation scheme and more draining is planned. Increased environmental awareness in Kenya, and Kenya's membership in the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance, has resulted in a critical review of these plans.ff (Riedmiller 1994, 329).
effFish experts assume that there is a real danger
that the Nile perch will extinguish most of the 300
endemic fish species in the lake. Ribbink (1987), for
instance, recommends that the Nile perch should be
overfished heavily while the endangered species
should be propagated in captivity so that the lake
can be restocked after the predator's population
has been reduced. According to senior L.B.D.A. officials,
this is also the option favoured by this Authority,
though nothing has as yet been done to implement
the second part of the recommendation.ff  (Riedmiller 1994, 332).
efUpon request, the Department informed us
that the legal net sizes are: gillnets - 10 cm and
above, dagaa nets - 1 cm, beach seine nets - 5 cm
and above, but the scouts at Wichlum Beach could
not give us this information. In addition, we were
informed that the former seasonal prohibition of
the use of mosquito and beach seine nets between
1st April and 31st July had been lifted in 1991.ff (Riedmiller 1994, 332).
"	"ef Most District Development Plans and L.B.D.A.
reports on problems in the fisheries in the Lake Basin
complain about the fishermen being exploited
by these traders, as they pay low prices, especially during the rainy season when catches are higher but
poor roads cut off access to the markets. Furthermore,
the fisheries co-operatives are blamed for not
fulfilling their role of negotiating a better deal for
their members. Instead, they restrict themselves to
recording catches and collecting fees from fishermen,
which are neither justified nor accounted for
(L.B.D.A.)3. Another constraint that is mentioned
in reports on the fishery refers to the presumed high
post-harvest losses of fishes, which is estimated at
3040% by L.B.D.A. and District Development
Plans, which consequently call for better storage facilities
(L.B.D.A.)ff (Riedmiller 1994, 332).
"		"Utilisation of invasive species, Changes in fishing systems"	No data	"Creating job opportunities for women
ff A large proportion of the catches is processed
and traded by informal sector businesses that are
mostly run by women.ff (Riedmiller 1994, 333).
"	No data	"ff An example of the efficient
use of even fish wastes is a local business that has
developed in some places (especially Kisumu)
where Nile perch are filleted. The carcasses are
deep-fried in their own fat and sold very cheaply by
local standards. A deep-fried Nile perch carcass
bought for Ksh. 31- (about US$0.10) is said to feed
a whole familyff (Riedmiller 1994, 332).

"	"Social, spiritual and cultural relations"	No data	"ff The fishermen who formerly subsisted on haplochromines and tilapias are being driven out of business as the fishery is concentrated in the hands of wealthier people who can afford boats as well as the larger, stronger and more expensive nets that are required for the perchff (Riedmiller 1994, 330)."	"Resource tenure, Education/knowledge"	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	"Lake Kanyaboli has a special significance in the
conservation of the ecology of the lake basin as the
Nile perch has not as yet reached it. Though the fish
resources are not rich, the composition of the fish
communities in Lake Kanyaboli is similar to the
composition recorded from Lake Victoria before
the introduction of Nile perch in the 1960s. Therefore
the Expedition recommended that 'proper
management (. . .) be maintained to protect the
Lake Kanyaboli fisheries from the Nile perch. The
fishery resources of Lake Kanyaboli are unique as
they are a living museum of those fish which populated
Lake Victoria before the 1960.ff (Riedmiller 1994, 338).
"	No data	No data	No data	"efA large proportion of the catches is processed
and traded by informal sector businesses that are
mostly run by women. This trend can be assumed to
benefit local income and improve nutritional standards.
These issues are ignored by virtually all development
plans on fisheries, which concentrate on
commercial fishermen and mostly propose high-input
technologies for storage, processing and marketing
of the Nile perch, such as ice plants, filleting
factories and refrigerated vans. Research is urgently
needed to establish the impact of the drastically
changed fisheries on the Lake Victoria ecosystem,
as well as on the income and nutritional status of the
local population.ff
"	"Fishermen, Wichlum Beach"																																																																													
	"Patricia Howard, LA Chpt. 6"	2021/7/10	"Rijal & Cochard. 2016. Invasion of Mimosa pigra on the cultivated Mekong River floodplains near Kratie, Cambodia: farmersf coping strategies, perceptions, and outlooks"	"65% are rice (and some fish) subsistence farmers, 30% live on less than US$1/day. 15 km stretch of road along Mekong River between Kratie and Chlong municipalities. Rice fields situated mainly close to wetlands and in areas with relatively high surrounding woody cover."	"81 farmers - 60% men, 40% women were interviewed. In five villages, eight groups of 4-7 farmers were interviewed in groups. Data were collected from the farmers using a standardized questionnaire including both open and closed questionscIn addition to the questions, the farmers were confronted with ten position statements ranked on a five point Likert scale"	"Mimosa pigra L. (mimosa, catclaw, or giant sensitive plant) is a prickly shrub or small tree (\4 m) native to floodplains in the Neotropics."	Spread	"Introduction and invasion of M. pigra in South-east Asia  poorly documented. introduced in Northern Thailand (reportedly in tobacco plantations) possibly as early as 1947 and spread into the Mekong Basin probably around 1975c and spread along the Mekong.  Iinfestations  cover  2100 km2 or ~20 % of the maximum flooding zone on the floodplains; paddy fields are interspersed in a patchwork of infestations. Dense thickets around wetlands and ponds; ubiquitious along edges and in gaps of woodlands and plantations.  By farmersf estimates on average, 43 }  34 % (range 0?100 %) of the fields were covered with mimosa plants before they prepared their fields for crop plantingc The findings indicate that seeds were spread throughout the study sitec. all fields except one were closer than 76 m to the nearest mimosa infestation "	"IAS, Natural drivers, Land-use and Sea-use change"	"IAS: Abundant seeds that spread by floating on water. In suitable habitats, mimosa can out-compete native vegetation and establish monospecific, impenetrable thickets. Species diversity and abundance are severely depressed in mimosa thickets. Replacement of diverse natural forest habitats by mimosa may promote socme animal and plant pests noted by farmers. Once established,  hard to eradicate as it re-sprouts from roots or re-grows from dense, persistent soil seed banks. Natural: Spread rate in Mekong River floodplains  probably considerably high due to (1) greater flood pulses and (2) more suitable, open habitats for colonization in and around rice fields. Pests and diseaseses Land use change: war led to land abandonment where invasions not cleared."	"Science, technology, and knowledge, Politics, governance and institutions"	"Technology: paddy fields vulnerable to invasion. Politics: dense mimosa infestations.. mostly on previously cultivated lands. Many fields may have been abandoned during times of turmoil, and the covering infestations (and their soil seed banks) now represent an obstruction for renewed cultivation. For these and other reasons, many farmers probably sought labour elsewhere, for example, in the booming logging industry. Economic: ca majority of farmers are still highly under-resourced (e.g.depend on manual labour for field preparation, lack irrigation infrastructure  and exposed to natural forces (droughts, floods, pests, and crop diseases). Losses of crops during a bad year can easily lead to hardship and ruin a farmerfs livelihood"	None mentioned.	"Invades and virtually elocks upf productive floodplain areas, transforms riparian habitats. Replacement of diverse natural forest habitats. Alters water balance after the wet season."	"37 % of respondents said  mimosa could be (and sometimes was) used as firewood;  63 % saw no plant usesc The value of mimosa as firewood was considered very low, since it eburns quickly and releases a bad smellf. But emore and more people use mimosa as firewood, because they do not want to go far to collect [more valuable] firewoodf"	"While mimosa was considered to represent a serious problem..[it was] was seldom highest on the list of farmersf grievances - especially rodent pests and diseases are high on their list. May increase animal and plant pests that farmers report are more harmful than Mimosa. Rodents find shelter, breeding habitat, and  food in  thickets. Rodent predators cannot find shelter or breed in dense mimosa scrubs. Insect and ewormf pests are kept in check by a  predator species that thrive in a landscape with sufficient native vegetation components, but species diversity and abundance are severely depressed in mimosa thickets. By altering the water balance after the wet season, mimosa may also indirectly promote pest species (e.g. root-knot nematodes) and the spread and growth of grass weeds in paddy fields. 98% of farmers considered mimosa as a serious problem which enegatively affected their livelihoodsf. To most  (72 %), it incurs significant costs in terms of  time spent for weeding."	No data	"No farmer used chemicals. 4 weeding techniques were most common: recurrently pulling out young sprouts (37 % of farmers), cutting (80 %) or burning (11 %) sprouts, and digging out entire plants (62 %). Techniques were apparently not changed over time. The most effective measure to reduce overall seed production of woody weeds is to directly target standing vegetation. The farmers are aware of this. Weeding varied widely from 1 to 40 days/yr/ha. Farmer with more cultivated land spent less time per hectare; more weeding in fallow fields. Most weeded avg of 3.5 times, 3 days per period;  but some weeded at irregular intervals throughout the year. High weeding rates reported by farmers cultivating more than one crop and farmers used to digging up mimosa plants (as compared to those merely cutting the plants"	"In the longer term, cutting may only be efficient if done before significant flooding. Under water, the plantsf vigour to re-sprout and growth tends to be significantly decreased, and optimally the plants die off .  Farmers were apparently aware that they needed to control the early weed when it was still small; otherwise, mature plants would firmly establish with deep roots. Costs of mimosa eradication from fields increase disproportionately with the plantfs growth.  Head of the Office of Agriculture  said a weed control programme by an NGO had been unsuccessful, and stated: eWe do not have enough information to formulate an effective management plan, and without one we cannot afford to use our limited resources in such manner as the NGO didf. He noted that the project ecost a lot of money but nothing was achievedf  They gdiscouraged the idea to use herbicides because ethen a lot might be used and that is not good for other areas of agriculturef. For farmers, options for improved management are limited due to: prolific production and spread of seeds, and the development of permanent seed banks. Nonetheless, there were no concrete initiatives to address seed production and dispersal, respectively, to combat standing infestations in a strategic, communally coordinated way. 41% believed mimosa could be clear from fields within a fairly short timeframe; 35% thought it could be controlled sustainably."	Must be weeded out of fields. A majority of farmers want to eradicate the weed from their fields (96 %) and 89% would welcome and offer support to an external mimosa management team. Most farmers are willingness to participate in weed control programmes (79 %) and provide any kind of support (85 %). 	Changes in cropping systems	"None of the respondentschad changed their crops following mimosa invasion, and only 6 % indicated that the weed restricted their selection of crops"	"While generally much effort was spent at weeding, apparently no actions were taken to address the mimosa problem beyond the confines of private fieldscIn the Mekong Delta, clearance (stem cutting) of one hectare of mature mimosa infestations reportedly required about 30?60 labour days (corresponding to * 100 US$); complete clearing (including uprooting) cost more than 200 US$"	"Only 26 % of the interviewed farmers were hiring or willing to hire labour to clear mimosa from their own fields. Farmers who owned a lot of land but planted only one crop (mostly rice) were most likely to employ workersc Those unwilling to hire labour noted that their fields were not very large (15 %), or that they did not have sufficient money"	No data 	Material and immaterial assets	Some use Mimosa for (inferior) fuelwood.	Crop losses especially from pests and diseases that may be an indirect effect of Mimosa; higher labour demands; possibly inability to clear invaded land for cultivation.	No data	No data	No data.	No data.	"Several local farming, youth, age groups, church, political and credit organisations were nominated to undertake control trials introduced by extensionists. Farmers want to test new control methods; should be low-cost and based on local resources "	Farmers want to test new control methods (introduced by extensionists); should be low-cost and based on local resources	"Information about traditional control measures was usually obtained from eforefathersf, parents, elders and innovative farmers. Many techniques were learned elong agof, with cover crops and slashing with a cutlass learned from innovative farmers, and cover crops recently introduced by extensionists. On the other hand, farmers learnt about relatively new techniques (such as herbicide application and cover crops) from researchers and extension agents comparatively recently (in the last 3?5 years). "	"Farmers predicted a rise in the level of speargrass, lower crop yields, deforestation, poverty and hunger in the future"	No data	Reduced crop yields  - worst affected are the most important crops (cassava and yam). Restricts ability to intensify crop production.	"Farmers in the three communities had different views about the factors that were responsible for the increasing incidence and severity of speargrass damage. bush burning (70% of respondents), deforestation (20%)  the spread of speargrass seed by wind (10%) were the primary factors increasing its spread.  They claimed that hunting and land clearing directly or indirectly resulted in the spread of the weed.  Deforestation was caused by the increase in farming activities (15%) and clearing to build houses (5%)c. Emere farmers considered poor soil fertility (50%), lack of capital (20%), lack of family or hired labour (30%), poor access to herbicides and sprayers (10%), as well as the lack of skills in applying herbicides and maintaining equipment (10%) as the principal factors that exacerbated the speargrass problem.  Farmers from Tarka attributed the intensification of the speargrass problem to declining soil fertility (50%), continuous cropping (20%), soil type (10%), and underground rhizomes (20%) that could not be controlled by traditional weed control options"	No data	"Small farmers, Mekong River"																																																																													
	"Chika Egawa, LA, Chpt. 5"	12/7/2021 CE	Robinson and Wallington 2012. Boundary Work: Engaging Knowledge Systems in Co-management of Feral Animals on Indigenous Lands	"Jawoyn (Australian Aboriginal people living in the Northern Terrioty of Australia) rangers and elders as co-managers of Kakadu National Park.
The period of study was not specified."	"Jawoyn and non-Indigenous rangers and senior Jawoyn Traditional Owners.
Methods include creating ga park-scale map to identify where high levels of consensus/disagreement between indigenous and scirntific knowledge systems existed and  running a pilot project on feral animal control in low and medium conflict areas."	"Feral pigs (Sus scrofa),  horses (Equus caballus) and water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis): those were introduced into the Northern Territory by British colonizers in the mid 1800s"	Spread	Feral animals have been present in the region for over 150 years.	No data	Unspecified other than British colonizers who introduced alien animals.	No data	No data	No data	"Feral pigs reduce the abundance of native yam and freshwater turtle in waterholes and swamps, which are valued food sources, and spread weeds by moving through the savanna."	"Food source - gPigs provide a food source for local Jawoyn people.h
Job opportunities - gA few Indigenous people are employed in pig control activities or wish to pursue this as an employment opportunity.h
Tourism - Tourist enjoy gpig sightings on roads in savanna woorlandsh"	"Tourism - gsome tourist sites are very damaged by wallowsh
Culture - gThere is high concern that local disturbance at a local sacred site near one waterhole would cause catastrophic consequences to sites and resources that connect this sacred site to other ecological and sacred features and resources in Jawoyn territories.h"	No data	A ground-based shooting operation followed by an aerial shoot to cull sufficient numbers.	"The challenges include difficulties in getting the broader park planning and policy authorities to support local co-management activities and initiatives, and in entering into equitable co-management arrangements, resource limitations, and subsequent changes to government agency staff in the park."	To reduce the damage of IAS to specific species and places	Utilisation of invasive species	Utilisation of invasive species - Jawoyn rangers provide meat of IAS obtained through management to the Jawoyn community.	No data	No data	The management of feral animals may affect the sales of meat products derived from the culls and fee-charging safari hunting activities hosed by indigenous people	"Material and immaterial assets, Social, spiritual and cultural relations"	"Material and Immaterial assets - Management of IAS provided employment benefits with indigenous communities.
Social, spiritual and cultural relations - on-ground shoots provided a chance to gwork together to care for countryh to build relationships and new ways of knowing about this dynamic landscape."	No data	Governance institutions 	No data	No data	"The decision-making approach and techniques used to cull feral animal species in KNP have historically been a source of conflict between Indigenous elders, Indigenous KNP rangers, and non-Indigenous KNP rangers"	"Effects of feral animals on sacred sites justify the management of IAS for indigenous people.
Indigenous people prefer to conduct a ground-based shooting over aerial shooting or mass animal slaughter so that they can provide meat to the Jawoyn community."	"Management of Kakadu National Park is through a multi-tiered partnership between Indigenous landowners, the park director, and a board of management on which the former two are both represented "	"Indigenous people share their knowledge with non-indigenous KNP rangers, and vice versa, through co-management projects described above."	Future directions identified in the study involved with indigenous people are (1) enabling Jawoyn and non-Indigenous rangers to broker knowledge/action links; (2) respect and use of tacit knowledge and interactional expertise to develop purpose-built knowledge partnerships that could inform particular management activities; and (3) the use of collaborative boundary objects.	"Local Indigenous people have seen and reacted to feral animals in different ways in response to their historical interactions with other animals, including those now deemed feral, peoplefs access to traditional territories, and the effects these animals have had on Indigenous peoplesf customary economic activities."	"Indigenous people prioritize the impacts on (1) two waterholes that were identified to be significant cultural and food harvesting sites for Jawoyn residents and that were being heavily used by resident feral animal populations, (2) savanna woodlands where large numbers of feral animals had been seen, and (3) Melaleuca riparian swamps where feral animal tracts were causing significant gully erosion."	No data	"The IAS are incorporated as important food and economic resources, although they are considered as threats when they damage indigenous lands."	Jawoyn aboriginals																																																																													
	"Patricia Howard, LA Chpt. 6"	2021/6/30	"Roder et al. 1995a Chromolaena odorata in slash-and-burn rice systems of Northern Laos; Roder et al. 1995b Relationships between soil, fallow period, weeds and rice yield in slash-and-burn systems of Laos, Roder 2001, Slash-and-burn rice systems in the hills of northern Lao PDR: description, challenges, and opportunities  "	"Provinces of Luang Prabang and Oudomxay in Northern Laos. Ethnic groups - Lao Theung (Lao of the mountain slopes), and Lao Soung (Lao of the mountain summits)"	"Survey of 129 households using formal questionnaire in 1991 and 1992. In 1991, soil samples collection, in 1993 weed survey in 55 fields, experiment to compare performance of potential fallow and multipurpose tree species."	"Chromolaena odorata is widespread in slash-and-burn agriculturecit is the dominant species in fallows in the area. Probably because its introduction coincided with the French presence, it is known in some areas as 'nia phalang', which translates into 'French weed' or 'foreign weed'c. known in the French language as l 'herbe du Laosf"	Spread	"present in southern Thailand since about 1922c.suggested that it spread into Laos by wind in the late 1920s...as a new weed in what is now Luang Namtha Province during the 1940s. Due to favorable conditions C. odorata spread rapidly and had already become the most abundant weed in slash-and-bum rice fields and the successive fallow land in the 1950s. with shorter fallow periods, the vegetation cover is dominated by annuals, shrubby perennials, and bamboo. Of these, Chromolaena odorata is the dominant species. "	Natural drivers	C. odorata is spread by wind	"Politics, governance and institutions, Demographic , Science, technology, and knowledge"	"Politics: The present government policies give high priority to reducing the area under slash-and-bum agriculture and thereby limiting farmers' access to land. These efforts, combined with rapid population growth, have resulted in shorter fallow cycles and consequently increased weed problems and soil deterioration. Demographic: rapid population growth - density increased from 7.6 to 17.6 persons/km. Technology: fallow periods decreased from 38 to 5 years."	No data	No data	"C. odorata improves fallows, provides protective cover in early fallow period (preventing erosion on sloping land), most effective at suppressing other weeds, improves soil fertility - no species recommended for fallow improvement would be superior to C. odorata, also according to experiments. Makes soil preparation and weeding easier."	"Initial phase of fallow period used to graze ruminants but unpalatable so little forage is available (most cash is earned from livestock). C. odorata contributes around 40% of weed cover; weeding requirements have increased substantially over the last few decades [but C. odorata suppresses other, worse weeds]"	No data	"A few farmers indicated that they were making some effort to increase the C. odorata cover by burning and/or slashing, selective weeding, and avoiding the last weeding. Most farmers weed before planting. Mulching/burning of residue: Traditional field preparation involves burning of the slashed above-ground biomass. consisting of 4-20 t of dry matter per ha, depending on fallow period."	burning reduced weed biomass during season (14-60%) and at rice harvest (18-42%). Labour for weeding is a constraint.	"Farmers customarily provide adequate weed control, and weeds are therefore not a direct yield constraint but a constraint to labor productivity"	No data	No data	Weed control in upland rice production requires about 150-200 days ha?1 or 40?50% of the total labor input.	No data	"Rice yields are stable but increases in labour demand for weeding mean that labour productivity has declined over time. From 1950 to 1990,cweeding requirements  increased from 1.9 to 3.9 weedings/rice crop. because of high requirements for weeding, the return to labor is only 5 kg rice/labor  day For slash-and-burn systems compared with 13 kg/day in lowland rice production. BUT C. odorata is easier to weed and suppresses other weeds."	"Material and immaterial assets, Freedom of choice or action"	No data 	"Material and immaterial assets:  because of high requirements for weeding, the return to labor is only 5 kg rice/labor  day For slash-and-burn systems compared with 13 kg/day in lowland rice production. Freedom of choice:  farmers are under great pressure to change their land-use practices and may have to shift land use. However, lack of markets, credit facilities, or alternative employment opportunities leave them little choice but to continue producing upland rice for their own consumption "	"Resource tenure, Social stratification"	Not reported	"Resource tenure: government has reduced land access through policies to eliminated slash-and-burn agriculture; Social stratification: upland rice farmers have declining labor productivity. Upland rice yields are well below 1 t ha-1, against an average yield of upland rice of above 1.5 t/ha "	No data	No data	No data	"[Farmers] have gained experience and practical knowledge of how these trees fit within the regional ecological and agricultural systems and, by and large, made pragmatic decisions to manage the invasive tendencies of acacias to their own advantage and purpose"	No data	Farmers in highland Madagascar refer to A. dealbata as ezavatra sarobidyf or eprecious thingf because it grows for free in peoplefs fields. case studiescindicate that farmers have eadaptedf their farming system to take advantage of einvasivef species instead of viewing them as bad and trying to eradicate them from their lands. 	"Turn potential harms into benefits - harms in the form of competition with crop plants, benefits in the form of multiple products and shortened fallows from improved soil fertility."	No data	The integration of such invasive plant species within agricultural production systems illustrates how rural communities and households can be remarkably adaptive and opportunistic in their livelihood strategies and seek to improve their welfare within the constraints of the ecological systems in which they reside 	"Lao theung, Lao Soung people, swidden farmers, Luang Prabang and Oudomxay provinces"																																																																													
AP.3	"Patricia Howard, LA Chpt. 6"	2021/7/6	"Rogers et al. 2017. Reimagining invasions: The social and cultural impacts of Prosopis on pastoralists in southern Afar, Ethiopia "	"Southern Afar, Ethiopia. 10 purposively selected communities 6 in Amibara woreda and 4 in Gewane woreda January to April 2015"	"77 pastoralists ? equal numbers of men and women - interviews. The respondents collectively participated in a focus group discussion which expanded and qualified specific themes. Interviews with community leaders, kebele administrators. 12 key informants representing intergovernmental organisations, Ethiopian government agencies and donors triangulated the household responses and established broader perspectivesc The sample was purposively selected based on likely familiarity with P. juliflora."	Prosopis juliflora	Spread	"[secondary sources] Haregewyn et al. (2013) estimate that by 2020, a third of Amibara woreda in southern Afar will be covered by P. juliflora, with an annual spread of at least 20,000 ha per annum, an alarmingly high growth rate "	"Land-use and Sea-use change, IAS, Climate change"	"Land use change: Common pastureland in eastern Ethiopia is already under pressure, frequently appropriated by external cotton and sugarcane plantations. IAS: P. juliflora and the variety of impacts associated with its invasion present another driver of pastoral vulnerability. Climate change: Drought augments the competitive advantage P. juliflora has in water deprived conditions to threaten indigenous species, and reduces indigenous forage and pasture. Pastures have been reduced to a ejunglef rendering grazing unsustainable in significant areas. "	"Socio-cultural, Politics, governance and institutions, Demographic , Science, technology, and knowledge, Economic"	"Demographic: reduced indigenous forage and pasture forces pastoralists to travel increasing distances to find suitable grazing, entering into violent conflict with other pastoralists. Politics: The capacity of pastoral communities to adapt to changing ecological conditions is compromised by their diminished economic and political standing and hence marginalisation. Geopolitical conflict with Issa pastoralists aggrevated by migration for grazing resources. Socio-cultural: upsurpation of pasture land by government and agribusinesses, and Prosopis spread have forced sedentarisation, search for alternative livelihoods. Science, technology: traditional grazing system is no longer tenable,   leading to overstocking and Prosopis spread, loss of livestock. Economic: few other livelihood opportunities are available, forcing outmigration and generating poverty."	"a number of key informants [outside experts] said that P. juliflora benefits the environment through greening otherwise arid areas and preventing wind erosion, impacts rarely echoed within the community "	"Increasing proximity of wild animals, which can shelter in dense thickets. Loss of native biodiversity including grasses, trees, and shrubs"	"Charcoal production from P. juliflora; drying pods for livestock feed, "	"Invaded areas abandoned; increasing threats to livestock and children from wild animals; destruction of local species; diminshed and impoverished grazing resources; livestock diseases and injury caused by thorns; lower quality and quantity of livestock products; human injury by thorns; impeded access (roads, paths) cuts off communities, makes access to services (health, education, cultural) and markets difficult; building foundations are damaged; loss of indigenous species for construction, tools,  "	No data	"Cannot be eradicated, so interaction with NGOs focuses on clearance and utilisation projects. The policy towards charcoal production is confused, firstly allowing production as means to utilise Prosopis and then banning it due to the environmental and social damage and limited economic benefit. "	"Limited scuccess due to small scale of control efforts. Some dispute over whether, and where, production is controlled and a suspicion that charcoal producers are ignoring any restrictions. "	"Eradicate Prosopis, use it for benefit"	"Abandonment, Utilisation of invasive species, Changes in cropping systems, Changes in livestock systems"	"Abandonment: Dense invasion forces abandonment of grazing and cropping land, settlements, and outmigration; Cropping systems: some move into agriculture (sedentarisation); Livestock systems: forced to graze livestock far away, enter into violent conflict with Issa; herd loss, loss of productivity; move into wage labour and petty enterprises; Use of Prosopis encouraged by NGOs (e.g. for charcoal production)."	Pastoralists force to graze animals far away; those with greatest herd losses who are unable to sedentarise must take up wage labour or petty enterprises	"The cost of removal of P. juliflora is significant and in some cases untenable, leading to fears that farmland will be reappropriated and leased to investors  "	"Livestock losses lead to reduction of herd size, livestock lost and predated upon in thickets, diseases and injury lead to high mortality, loss of milk yields, loss of market value, diminished household capital compromises alternative livelihood investment opportunitites, remaining alternatives, such as wage labour and agriculture, fail to generate significant income."	"Material and immaterial assets, Safety and security, Health (mental and physical), Social, spiritual and cultural relations, Freedom of choice or action"	Some say that charcoal producers 'share' benefits with pastoralists.	"Material assets: Even the rich become poor and food insecure; Health: little milk for domestic consumption, little surplus to sell so lack cash for education and healthcare, roads & paths block access to health services; diminished economic standing, social health and community well-being undermine the ability of communities to adapt to change and their resilience to environmental threats, and fuel a widespread sense of despair and questioning over their well-being  Safety & Security: humans subject to predation by wild animals; pastoralists engage in violent conflict with Issa pastoralists."	"Governance institutions , Cultural institutions, Education/knowledge, Settlement / land use, Resource tenure, Social stratification"		"Governance: control through use programmes seen as inappropriate and cause conflict with outsiders; traditional practices, like allowing pastoralists from other areas access to pasture, are increasingly ignored. Grazing decisions are made unilaterally rather than collectively, as before.  Cultural institutions: sedentarisation erodes and fractures the communities and traditions of pastoralism; relations of reciprocity breaking down; traditional norms and behavioural patterns undermined due to  displacement and distance; destruction of Resource tenure: tensions between clans over access rights and how costs should be shared; Loss of native species (forage, medicinals, hygiene, construction, etc. )that once underpinned Afar cultural identity. Education/knowledge: access to education diminshed; ITK being rapidly lost as no longer appropriate"	"Conflict with Issa pastoralists and other pastoralists when grazing livestock; with (outside) charcoal producers who are seen as exploitative; with commercial plantations, the state and NGOs who promote control through use seen as inappropriate, and within communities about access rights and sharing costs... there is a recognised need for the government to support the resolution process"	"One group believed that mimosa infestations could possibly be cleared from surrounding areas eif everyone works together on clearing all their fieldsf. Most other groups were, however, overly pessimistic: eWith the number of seeds lying on the ground, and the large number that mimosa produces each year, there is nothing we can do. What could stop mimosa to produce seeds? Collective control: Few farmers (14 %) were willing to hire labour to clear neighbouring fields of mimosa, but a majority (69 %) would be willing to help weeding surrounding areas. Farmers were likely to offer labour if their fields had no mimosa infestations in close proximity, if they cultivated a comparatively small land area, and if they felt that mimosa represented no major burden on their own fields. Most  (53 %) preferred community weed management over individual  (32 %), some being undecided (15 %). Farmers who owned a lot of land and were mostly cultivating rice favoured community management."	"Head of the Office of Agriculture at Chhlong, Cambodian Ministry of Agriculture), the mimosa problem was well known to the local ministryca weed control programme by an NGO had been unsuccessful, and he therefore stated: eWe do not have enough information to formulate an effective management plan, and without one we cannot afford to use our limited resources in such manner as the NGO didf. He noted that the project ecost a lot of money but nothing was achievedf. 89% of farmers would welcome and offer support to an external mimosa management team... 79% would participate in weed control programmes and provide any kind of support (85 %). Many think Mimosa is very difficult to control, so positive attitudes towards a weed control programme may thus be tied to expectations regarding wider benefits (e.g. employment opportunities, training, and support) that such a programme may beget"	"Not mentioned, but apparently only ILK."	"Before costly mimosa weed control schemes are envisaged, the socio-political contexts need to be better understood and taken account of. Most farmers have expressed a willingness to provide support to initiatives targeting mimosa, but there may be various underlying motivations and associated expectations. In particular, it needs to be further investigated in which ways property rights and power constellations relate to agricultural lands under continued cropping versus under mimosa cover, and how different stakeholders may potentially benefit or lose out from the investments in mimosa weed control programmes. The central aim clearly must be to improve overall livelihood conditions of poor rural communities in an equitable way. Ultimately, this can only be achieved if any programme is well founded and finds acceptance as well as active support in local communities and organizations"	"Several groups noted that mimosa was ea big problemf in the sense that it could enot ever be completely eradicatedf, but it was ethe oldest problemf, so farmers were accustomed to weed it. Hence, many farmers appeared willing to accept enaturefs verdictf. Furthermore, farmers may now consider mimosa as a lesser evil because it can be managed on a fairly predictable basis, in contrast to unruly outbreaks of animal pests. This does not necessarily mean, however, that mimosa represents a lesser important issue."	"While mimosa was considered to represent a serious problem..[it was] was seldom highest on the list of farmersf grievances. Of equal or greater concerncwere animal pests in rice fields such as rodents (8 groups) and ewormsf infesting rice crops (7 groups)c native grass weeds (5), crabs (4), snails (1), and insects (one)c.insufficient water or limited irrigation capacities (3), and lack of tools and resources to work the fields (2)cwormsf and rodents were apparently recurrent and serious problemsc. The responses partly reflect the reality that a majority of farmers are still highly under-resourced (e.g. most prepare fields by man force; irrigation infrastructure is largely absent) and exposed to natural forces (droughts, floods, pests, and crop diseases). Losses of crops during a bad year can easily lead to hardship and ruin a farmerfs livelihood"	"At our study site, two-thirds of the respondents indicated that the weed had arrived 20 or more years agoc Thirty per cent of the farmers (and especially elder men) traced the invasion back to exactly 1979: as narratives have it, the invading Vietnamese army then planted the prickly weed near military facilities as a ebio-barb wiref. two-thirds of the respondents indicated that  the weed had arrived 20 or more years ago (maximum 48 years), whereas one-third believed that it had arrived more recently (3?17 years ago). The reported dates reflected the respondentsf memories, perceptions and?in the case of young farmers?beliefs in eldersf narratives"	people have come to consider that mimosa invasion is ean unavoidable burdenf. 	"Afar pastoralists, Awash basin "																																																																													
NG.1	"Tohru Ikeda, CLA Chapt. 3"	"6/8/2021 TI
20/8/2021  Re-entered TI"	Russell et al. 2020. eWe donft want to drink that waterf: cross-cultural indicators of billabong water quality in remote Indigenous Australia	"Remote community Ngukurr in northern Australia. Ngukurr is located within the recently declared South East Arnhem Land Indigenous Protected Area, on the northern bank of the Roper River."	"Informants: gTwelve Senior Knowledge Holders were interviewed and 19 Yangbala Rangers collaborated with the Macquarie University researcher (S. Russell), supervised by E. Ens, to interview and record knowledge. In addition, participant observation and opportunistic recording of Yangbala Ranger perspectives occurred throughout the projecth (Russell et al. 2020, 4). Twelve Senior Knowledge Holders were interviewed and 19 Yangbala Rangers to interview and record knowledge. 
Method: 
1)	Interviews
gDuring the early dry season (EDS) and late dry season (LDS) in 2017, semistructured interviews were conducted centring on Indigenous Indicators of water quality and perceptions of drinking water safetyh (Russell et al. 2020, 4)
2)	Western scientific methods were used to:
a)	Water sample collection and processing from six billabongs around the community of Ngukurr
b)	Immunofluorescence and microscopy
c)	DNA extraction of Cryptosporidium and Giardia
d)	Polymerase chain reaction screening for Cryptosporidium
e)	PCR screening for Giardia
"	"Feral ungulates (buffalo, pig, horse and cattle) "	Spread	"In decades, wild ungulates in northern Australia have steadily increased.
Buffaloes present across northern Australia and feral ungulates such as buffalo and pig are known reservoirs and vectors of zoonotic."	No data	No data	Socio-cultural	"gIn northern Australia, Indigenous people from the remote community Ngukurr have raised concerns about drinking water from freshwater billabongs due to potential microbial contamination from feral ungulates (buffalo, pig, horse and cattle).h@(Russell et al. 2020, 1)"	No data	No data	No data	"Feral ungulates ? harmful
gFeral ungulates such as buffalo and pig are known reservoirs and vectors of zoonotic (human infective) pathogens Cryptosporidium and Giardiah (Russell et al. 2020, 3)"	No data	No data	No data	"Management of feral ungulates on indigenous landF
gIn Australia, the management of feral ungulates on Indigenous land is highly contested due to economic (safari hunting, pet meat industry, live export and subsistence use) and, in some places, cultural values, such as incorporation into the dreaming cosmologyh (Russell et al. 2020, 9)"	Changes in wild resource systems	"gEcological research of feral ungulate damage across northern Australia has recommended that environmental managers and decision makers engage and involve local communities in problem definition and methods of controlh (Russell et al. 2020, 9)"	No data	No data	No data	Safety and security	"gBoiling water when drinking from billabongs during all seasons is considered best practice to avoid ingestion of infective enteric pathogens.h (Russell et al. 2020, 1)
gSenior Knowledge Holders in all interviews expressed the importance of boiling water before drinking it (10 interviews, 12 people).h (Russell et al. 2020, 6)"	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	"Relationship with environmental managers and decision makers:
gEcological research of feral ungulate damage across northern Australia has recommended that environmental managers and decision makers engage and involve local communities in problem definition and methods of controlh (Russell et al. 2020, 9, 9)"	"Water quality assessment:
gIndigenous knowledge holders largely made assessments about water quality based on seasonal knowledge, visible signs and intuition.h (Russell et al. 2020, 6)"	"gBecause social justice issues are increasingly being considered in environmental management, particularly with regard to Indigenous peoples, it is integral that we embrace Indigenous knowledge systems for ethical environmental decision making across Australia.h (Russell et al. 2020, 9)"	No data	No dara	No data	No data																																																																														
NG.2	"Tatsiana Lipinskaya, Fellow, Chpt1"	05/07/2021 TL	"Russell et al., 2020 - Cryptosporidium and Giardia in feral water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) in the South East Arnhem Land Indigenous Protected Area, Australia "	"remote Aboriginal community of Ngukurr, South East Arnhem Land Indigenous Protected Area (SEAL IPA), Northern Australia. in 2017, in the early dry season (EDS; June) and the late dry season (LDS; November)"	"Sampling were done with help of Ngukurr Yangbala Rangers, a group of young Aboriginal people from the community of Ngukurr. Buffalo faecal samples (n = 313) were collected directly off the ground around billabongs from free ranging buffalo in the SEAL IPA"	Water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) as a potential source of zoonotic Cryptosporidium and Giardia parasites	Spread	" A recent aerial survey of Arnhem Land estimated buffalo numbers at a minimum of 98,000 over a 92,000 km2 area "	Land-use and Sea-use change	Introducead as source for meat	No data	No data	No data	the vast and increasing damage: they cause to freshwater  ecosystems and associated flora and fauna 	No data	"reservoir of zoonotic G. duodenalis; a source of human infective oocysts (C. parvum) into surface water; potential threat to their health
from shared use of surface waters"	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	"Indigenous people from the remote community Ngukurr have raised concerns about the potential threat to their health from shared use of surface waters inhabited by buffalo
"	No data	No data																																																																														
	"Hanieh Saeedi, Fellow chapter 2"	2021/7/14	"Santos and Alves, 2016. Ethnoichthyology of the indigenous Truk? people, Northeast Brazil"	"Ethnoichthyology of the indigenous Truk? people, Northeast Brazil"	"33 Truk? fishers (27 men and six women), 2013 and 2014"	"efThe species cited by the fishers included
the butterfly peacock bass (Cichla ocellaris) and South
American silver croaker (Plagioscion squamosissimus).
These species were introduced to the Sobradinho
Hydroelectric Plant Lake by the National Department
of Works Against Drought (Departamento Nacional
de Obras Contra as Secas-DNOCS) at the end of the
1970s, In addition, many other species have been
introduced species from fish farming experiments in
the region, such as the oscar (Astronotus ocellatus)
and tambaqui (Colossoma macropomum), generating
at times negative impacts on the native fish populationsff 
(Santos and Alves 2016, 7)
"	Introduction 	No data	No data	No data	Economic	No data	No data	Reducing the native fish species richness	No data	"Harmful: the IAS reduced the native fish stock and declined and changed traditional fishing activities
ff The fishers cited several problems that, according to
them, have led to the decline of fishing in the villages
surveyed. These problems include the growth of illegal
fishing in the Truk? territory by non-indigenous fishers,
deforestation of the river banks, introduction of
exotic species and pollution.ff (Santos and Alves 2016, 6).
ff In the case of the S?o Francisco River,
several species have been introduced, and as indicated
by the statements of the interviewees, these introductions
have impacted the native species and caused
changes in the traditional fishing activity of riverine
populations.ff (Santos and Alves 2016, 6).
"	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	"Social, spiritual and cultural relations"	"Increasing knowledge transfer and research
effThe Truk? also provided information on the impacts related to population
declines in the fish fauna of the S?o Francisco
River. Knowledge about the ecology of the species and
the environmental impacts that have affected them
can support basic research on local fish populations
and research investigating the environmental impacts,
resource management and sustainable exploitation of
fisheries resources.ff (Santos and Alves 2016, 8).
"	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	Truka people																																																																													
	"Sebataolo Rahlao, CLA Chpt. 2"	27/09/2021	"Schuster et al, 2019. Vertebrate biodiversity on indigenous-managed lands - Aus, Bra and Can"	"Indigenous people, Australia, Brazil and Canada, 2019"	"Spatial layers of lands, international databases "	no data	no data	no data	"No data, No data, No data"	no data		no data	no data	no data	no data	no data	no data	no data	no data	no data	"no data, no data"	no data	no data	no data	no data	no data	no data	no data	no data	no data	no data	no data	no data	no data	"Spatial data layers consisting of three basic administrative delineations, vertebrate species distributions"	"...recognizing the role of Indigenous lands and
leadership in biodiversity conservation, and facilitating voluntary
partnerships to ensure the conservation of habitats on Indigenous lands,
may provide crucial opportunities for many countries to meet their
international commitments to conservation..."	no data	no data	no data	no data																																																																														
	"M. IKEGAMI, LA Chapter 4"	20210714	Schwilch et al. 2016. Impacts of outmigration on land management in a nepali mountain area	"in the Panchase area of the Western Development Region, Nepal,2012?2014"	"Between 10 and 30 % of the households were thus surveyed using a systematic sampling method.
a household survey was conducted in six communities within the watershed. Swiss and Nepali researchers jointly designed and tested the questionnaire based on previous knowledge and research conducted in Nepal (Sudmeier-Rieux 2011). The questions were centered on household demographics and socioeconomic status, housing and infrastructure, land use and land management, damage from disasters, the migration situation and remittances, and other institutional and social issues. Between 10 and 30 % of the households were thus surveyed using a systematic sampling method. "	" Nilo Gandhe (Ageratum Houstonianum) and Banmara (Ageratina adenophora),"	Establishment	"The two main species are Nilo Gandhe (Ageratum Houstonianum) and Banmara (Ageratina adenophora), plants which appeared only 5 years and 10 years ago respectively"	Land-use and Sea-use change	"gIf there were more people in the village, we would have less invasive species, as these people would use the landh (man in Kuiredanda village) and gThe more Banmara is cleared, the more it grows; we lack the labor to clear it betterh (woman in Upper Makawanpur).. (P185)"	No data	No data	No data	Nilo Gandhe is toxic for animals and both are difficult to remove	No data	No data	No data	No data	"Thus, with land abandonment and less labor available for weeding, both species spread increasingly (see also Jaquet et al. 2015). (P185)
gIf there were more people in the village, we would have less invasive species, as these people would use the landh (man in Kuiredanda village) and gThe more Banmara is cleared, the more it grows; we lack the labor to clear it betterh"	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data 	No data	No data	No data	No data 	No data	All respondents were well aware of the presence of invasive plants in the landscape. They identified the invasive plants appearing in the surroundings and their occurrence. They were able to distinguish between each of the three invasive species as all the species under investigation crop up on the same piece of land.	No data	"Mikania as increasing rapidly over the last 5?10 years (Table 2). With respect to Lantana the majority of respondents (72.5%) felt that the species was increasing gradually, while less than seven percent considered that the area covered by the species was decreasing. On the contrary, there was no clear consensus about the spread of Chromolaena and whether it was increasing or decreasing.  
Additionally, respondents expressed the opinion that the spread of invasive species was induced by several reasons such as; flood, non exploitation of the invasive species, favourable habitat environmental pollution, their fast growth, the use of chemical fertilisers and less pressure on forests incurred by the grazing ban. (P172)"	No data	"Villagers, Panchase area, Western Development Region"																																																																													
	"Patricia Howard, LA Chpt. 6"	2021/7/1	"Shackleton & Gambiza. 2008. Social and ecological trade offs in combating land degradation: the case of invasion by a woody shrub (Euryops floribundus) art Macubeni, South Africa"	"96 households in 12 of 14 villages; Macubeni area, Emalaheni District, Eastern Cape Province, South Africa - Xhosa mentioned. Remote, little infrastructure and employment, households rely on labour export, crops and livestock & wild plants for energy, building materials, medicines and food. 2006. One of the most impoverished and ecologically degraded areas in South Africa, formerly the Transkei homeland"	"A household survey to determine the uses and importance of E. ?oribundus to local households in the study area, within  a broader survey examining perceptions of land quality and degradation in general. an ecological survey in paired invaded and non-invaded sites.. assumed that non-invaded sites were such because the E. ?oribundus invasion had not progressed that far..all sites were open to heavy continuous grazing"	"Euryops ?oribundus N.E.Br. Small woody shrub. In protected environments it can be up to 2.5 m tall, but is usually less than 75 cm."	Spread	No data	"IAS, Resource extraction, Biodiversity loss, Natural drivers"	"Invasive: presumed in degraded areas subject to heavy grazing. Confined to fire refugia at low stocking densities. As livestock management/grazing regimes were implicated (correctly or incorrectly) as a primary cause of the degradation, the reasoning of the authorities followed that either animal numbers had to be reduced, or more grazing be made available. Resource Extraction: People said in the past the area was more wooded but not extensively; woody plants/trees were removed to create fields and for fuel and poles. Land use change: Abandonment of agricultural land ? abandoned land may be nuclei for invasion, and reason for high levels of soil erosion; Natural - After recent ?re, most E. ?oribundus was killed; with heavy grazing, grassland fuel load reduces & fires are less frequent & intense, water in?ltration &  soil moisture are reduced, thus, E. ?oribundus can spread."	"Politics, governance and institutions, Science, technology, and knowledge, Economic"	"Political: Under apartheid, blacks forced to relocate here, resulting in high human and livestock pressures.  2005-project to clear 1500 invaded ha by generating employment -  35000+ person days costing some US$400 000.  Overstocking and breakdown of grazing regulatory institutions blamed for signi?cant levels of soil erosion. One means of increasing the available grazing resources, according to local pastoralists and agricultural extension of?cers, was by removing E. ?oribundus to allow the natural grasslands to return. Short-term bene?t would also be gained through the money local people, especially the poorest, were to be paid for the removal of E. ?oribundus. However, no prior evaluation was done of the extent of the invasion, nor of the social or ecological impacts. Technological: Livestock densities 300-600% over recommended rates. "	"Total species richness was significantly higher in invaded sites. Invasion may provide seed and maintain production in non-invaded sites. Invaded areas had higher species richness; clearing may homogenise alpha and beta diversity. Bare ground was no higher and litter cover was better in invaded areas compared with  open grassland, potentially resulting in better nutrient recycling and moisture retention."	No data	"Of the 96 households surveyed, 90 (94%) of them reported using E. ?oribundus for one or more purposes - especially biomass energy for cooking and heating. 63% of users collect it either daily or a few times per week.Used for ceremonial wood piles and corral fencing, and women's enterprises"	"Considered by government and livestock owners to reduce grazing capacity, but not the case."	No efforts to prevent re-invasion on sites cleared by the programme	No data	"No efforts to limit erosion on cleared sites. Likely to be re-invaded. Increases in grazing capacity from clearing will likely lead to increased absolute stock numbers. Seedlings evident in  cleared areas < 6 mos after clearing. Grass cover lower in invaded areas, but culm density unaffected - culms per unit of grass cover must be higher in invaded areas. Current removal efforts will likely be short-lived unless an appropriate ?re regime is re-established. Removal may be counter-productive and will likely be ineffective in the longer run. "	"Authoritiesf think either livestock numbers must reduce or more grazing resources be made available. Livestock owners asked for removal. Authorities want to create local employment, alleviate poverty, by employing people to clear invasive."	"Changes in livestock systems, Manage invasive species as a resource "	Livestock: Efforts to manage livestock numbers havenft led to destocking. Any increase in grazing capacity from clearing will thus likely lead to increased absolute stock numbers. Manage as a resource: clearing reduces livelihood resources for women and most vulnerable.	People were paid to clear the invasive.	No data	"Clearing for control negatively affects fuelwood supply as there are few alternative species in the degraded environment. Clearing to control is only in the interest of livestock owners, who are male, and in a minority."	Material and immaterial assets	Short-term wage labour for control paid by project. 	"With few other biomass fuel resources in the area, women and poor must  purchase fuels with negative impact on scarce cash resources. Women and poor lose source of income when invasive is controlled. Women's enterprises negatively affected by clearing."	"Social stratification, Governance institutions "	Only payment for clearing invasive.	"Clearing invasive to allow natural grasslands to return would mainly bene?t livestock-owning households. Livestock owners mainly male and  wealthier. Non-owners bene?t from livestock presence, but bear the costs of  degradation and  removal of a key invasive species. Negative impacts of invasive removal mainly felt by women who collect wood. Increasing poverty for the most vulnerable."	No data	No data	No data	"All appears to be ILK, women and less educated appear to have more, as know when Optunia appeared."	"Discusses possible control options including herbicides and biological controls, and their efficacy in other countries."	No data 	"When asked to select the most important threat to livestock production, 35% identified weeds and poisonous plants as the most important, followed by insufficient grazing (31%), which may also be as a result of plant invasions, followed by disease (20%), and livestock wildlife conflict (11%). When asked to identify the most problematic plant species, O. stricta was cited as the worst weed in the area (55%). See IPLC impacts column for the rest."	"Most respondents ( 25%) believed it to be spread by wildlife (primarily baboons) or livestock, or that it spread naturally on its own, with fewer (14%) mentioning that it was spread by people"	No data	Xhosa & others Macubeni area																																																																													
	"M. IKEGAMI, LA Chapter 4"	20210714	"Shackleton & Shackleton. 2018. Local knowledge regarding ecosystem services and disservices from invasive alien plants in the arid Kalahari, South Africa "	"Khomani San people and Mier (Klein and Groot Mier), Welkom, Rietfontein and Askham, Mier Municipality in the Northern Cape Province of South Africa Kalahari, South Africa (P24)"	"Streets within each settlement were randomly selected and residents of all available homesteads with declared invasive plants on that street were interviewed. (41.2% male and 58.8% female)
semi-structured interviews with 180 respondents across the five settlements. Streets within each settlement were randomly selected and residents of all available homesteads with declared invasive plants on that street were interviewed."	12 invasive plant species	Spread	"Despite the relative closeness of each settlement, there were differences in the prevalence of invasive plants in homestead yards across settlements (Table 2). Welkom had a high prevalence of E. camaldulensis compared to the other settlements. Furthermore, the presence of some invasive plants in homesteads was unique to particular settlements. For example, the trees J. mimosifolia and T. stans, and C. grandiflora were only found in Rietfontein, while M. alba was only present in Askham. The tree L. leucocephala was dominant in Rietfontein, with respondents mentioning it had been recently introduced from there to Mier. However, other species like Prosopis, O. ficus-india and S. molle were relatively common across all settlements."	Land-use and Sea-use change	"Alien invasive plant species, the focus of this study, are also common in the landscape in both settlements and in surrounding lands, and were primarily introduced to support livestock production, as ornamental plants and for shade (Shackleton et al.,2015)"	No data	No data	No data	No data	"Beneficial; shade, firewood, fruit, medical, fodder, ornamental, materials, gAll the trees were important for shade (60e100% of respondents mentioned this benefit from each tree species) (Table 4).h gTrees thus played a crucial role in regulating the micro-climate around respondentsfh gFor example, many of the larger species were used for firewood by up to 40% of respondents,h g. Fruit from M. alba and O. ficus-indica was important for dietary diversity and nutrition, with this being mentioned by all respondents who had these species in their yards. Many respondents also reported the use O. ficus-indica for medicinal purposes,h gM. azedarach and S. molle were used to treat flu, while M. azedarach was used for veterinary purposes to treat worms in goats.h gM. azedarach and S. molle were used to treat flu, while M. azedarach was used for veterinary purposes to treat worms in goats.h  gProsopis, O. ficus-indica and to a lesser extent L. leucocephalab were important sources of fodder for livestock. h gThis is supported by the following quote: gSyringas are very important for making the town look nice; we like it (Syringa) because it makes the area look green and gives us shade.h Numerous other uses and benefits mentioned included the value of the different invasive species for wind breaks, making soap and fencing materials. Th (P28"	"Harmful; economic, health and safety 
harmful: L. leucocephala ""In Rietfontein, 5.3% respondents mentioned problems associated with L. leucocephala saying it spreads too fast and they have to weed their yards (Table 6)"" gthis species is going to become a problem in the area as it grows near water sources and goats eat the pods so it will spread fast.h
Harmful: Prosopis ""The most common disservice mentioned was excessive uptake of water by Prosopis (Table 5). The tendency of this plant to damage buildings, through the roots seeking water, was also mentioned. "" 
Harmful: Prosopis and M. azedarach, health and safety: ""A retired school teacher mentioned that when Prosopis flowers many of the children at the school struggle with asthma and hay-fever. M. azedarach flowers similarly are also said to induce asthma."" 
Harmful: O. ficus-indica, health and safety:  gWe had turksvey (O. ficusindica) but took it out because we have small children and the prickles hurt them.h (P28)"	the presence of particular invasive trees (e.g. E. camaldulensis and S. molle) were said to be the result of SANParks (South African National Parks) supplying households with these species approximately 15 years ago (Table 3). This was part of an initiative to encourage the removal of Prosopis and thus help prevent the spread of this species into the park. Respondents mentioned that they were provided with a mix of indigenous and exotic/invasive tree seedlings to replace the existing Prosopis. (P26)	No data	"""many of them indicated reluctance to remove their trees as they argued it would take too long for replacement trees to establish or they had not been successful growing other species."" (P28)
gWorking for Water told us it is a bad tree, it takes water, and they tried to remove it but they did not apply herbicide correctly so now they have just grown back.h Another quote describes how gwhen you cut the Prosopis trees, the seedlings just replace them.h"	Most respondents (65%) believed that Prosopis causes environmental harm	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data 	No data	No data	No data	No data 	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	Khomani San people and Mier ('coloured') of several municipalities in the Kalahari																																																																													
AM.a	"Ankila Hiremath, LA, Ch. 4"	11/07/2021 AH	Shackleton et al. 2007. Assessing the Effects of Invasive Alien Species on Rural Livelihoods: Case Examples and a Framework from South Africa	"Village residents, Tidbury village, Kat River valley, South Africa"	"Households in Tidbury; farmers, agricultural extension officer, local Nature Reserve manager (Tidbury). Interviews, workshops, key informant interviews, vegetation surveys"	"Opuntia ficus-indica (local name: itdlofiya) Prickly pear.  Opuntia aurantiaca. Jointed Cactus [some data, though this species is not a focus of the present study, unlike the other 2 species]"	Spread	"""It spread as large impenetrable thickets that diminished other land use options until eventually control measures were demanded (van Sittert, 2002)."" (Shackleton et al. 2007, p. 114-115)"	No data	No data	Socio-cultural	Introduced as an ornamental plant. First recorded in the 1700s in gardens of Dutch colonists.	"gOne man said that he would prefer the Prickly Pear to grow in areas where there was erosion to protect the soil.h (Shackleton et al. 2007, p. 119)"	No data	"Opuntia ficus-indica: Used as a supplementary food, and to sell. Opuntia aurantiaca: No beneficial impacts mentioned."	Opuntia ficus-indica: Thorns can harm children; at high densities it can reduce grazing resources. Opuntia aurantiaca: thorns are dangerous for people and livestock.	No data	"Opuntia aurantiaca: gAt one stage the villagers had decided to eradicate it, and had collected as much Jointed Cactus as they could and then burnt it.h (Shackleton et al. 2007, p. 118)"	"After attempts to control it (Opuntia aurantiaca) it was back at pre-burn densities, and villagers gave up on trying to control it. "	Opuntia aurantiaca: Problem for livestock and people. 	Utilisation of invasive species	"Use of Opuntia ficus-indica as fruit, to brew iQilika, to make jams. Use the cladodes to feed livestock."	"gDuring the fruiting season (mid-December?end March) one or two members of a household leave early in the morning to collect Prickly Pear on the mountains.....The collectors made 3.2 +/- 2.8 trips a month. According to the interviewees the fruiting season lasted about 2.5 +/- 0.6 months.h (Shackleton et al. 2007, p. 117)"	No data	"There were 4 people who were vendors of Prickly Pear. ""Gross monthly earnings were low, ranging from R20 to R100 (Table III). Although there were only four people actively selling Prickly Pear, four other people mentioned that they occasionally exchanged buckets of fruits with neighbours for staple foods."" (Shackleton et al. 2007, p. 117)"	"Social, spiritual and cultural relations"	"""Prickly Pear had a cultural value because it signified a relationship with the spirits."" (Shackleton et al. 2007, p. 119). Promotes community relationships--enables reciprocity, with poorer people being able to contribute labour (e.g., buckets of fruit) in exchange for other food. Reduces household vulnerability. Is aesthetically pleasing. "	"""Prickly Pear grew on the riverbanks near sacred pools which upset the ancestral spirits who reside in the pools."" (Shackleton et al. 2007, p. 119)"	No data	No data	No data	No data	"Local communities have adapted to the IAS to optimize positive impacts, minimize harmful impacts. They have innovated technologies to harvest the species. They have accomodated the IAS in the landscape (e.g., as field borders)"	"Outsiders (e.g., Nature Reserve manager, agriculture extension officer) viewed prickly pear as a valuable resource for community members."	No data	No data	"gAll interviewees said that Prickly Pear had been present before they were born. The oldest interviewee (75 years), stated that his father used to collect Prickly Pear as a young boy. In the group workshop, participants revealed that they were unaware that Prickly Pear was an alien species, and one woman insisted that it was gthe plant of my ancestors.h (Shackleton et al. 2007, p. 116)"	"Seen as valuable for its fruits; seen to have cultural value, and to promote community relationships and social capita. "	"Viewed to be decreasing, with decrease driven by overharvesting, but also by climatic factors and biological control. "	"gc both species have been features of the landscape for at least two generations, such that local people had become acclimatised to them, and viewed them as an integral, if not natural, part of the landscape. Thus, it is not a case of opportunistic use, but a long-term adaptation to a permanent feature of the landscape, aesthetically, functionally and economically.h (Shackleton et al. 2007, p. 121)"	"Catha villagers, Amatola, South Africa"																																																																													
AM.b	"Ankila Hiremath, LA, Ch. 4"	11/07/2021 AH	Shackleton et al. 2007. Assessing the Effects of Invasive Alien Species on Rural Livelihoods: Case Examples and a Framework from South Africa	"Village residents, Catha village, Amatola municipality, South Africa"	"Households in  Catha; Participatory Forest Management Committee (PFM), tribal headmen, oldest resident of village, forestry official (Catha). Interviews, workshops, key informant interviews, vegetation surveys"	Acacia mearnsii. Black Wattle	Spread	"""It has now invaded over 2.5 million ha (de Wit et al., 2001), with up to a further 8 million ha of currently natural lands at risk (Rouget et al., 2002)."" (Shackleton et al. 2007, p. 114-115) "	No data	No data	Economic	Introduced as a plantation species for commercial timber and bark (for tanning). Introduced mid-19th century.	No data	No data	Used as firewood; poles used for building and fencing	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	Utilisation of invasive species	"Use it as firewood; use the poles for building, fencing"	"gOf the users, 83% collected their own supplies, and 17% purchased them. The purchasers were all elderly women who all said that they were too old to collect it for themselves. ...People who collected head-loads collected 3.3 + 4.5 times a month (the equivalent of 80.2 kg); whereas those collecting with LDVs and cattle collected 0.4 + 0.7 times a month (the equivalent of 87.2 kg) (Table IV). Collection trips lasted on average 2.6 + 1.2 h (Table IV)."" (Shackleton et al. 2007, p. 119)"	No data	No data	Material and immaterial assets	"Cultural relations: gThe Catha inhabitants did not commonly view the Black Wattle as a cultural resource; however 27% claimed they used it to build abakweta huts for young male initiates, for their coming of age ritual and circumcision camps. Another man said that it was culturally significant as they used the wood for fires for weddings, funerals and other ceremonies. h (Shackleton et al. 2007, p. 119-120). Material/immaterial assets: firewood, building and fence poles. "	"Cultural relations: gA traditional healer stated that Black Wattle has no cultural value and that its presence near the sacred pools upsets the ancestors. Most respondents (77%) were concerned with the growth of Black Wattle around sacred pools.h (Shackleton et al. 2007, p. 119-120). Material/immaterial assets: Dense growths of wattle in homesteads, and near riverbanks reduced access to grazing areas, and to water sources, respectively. Safety: Dense stands are perceived as unsafe (can provide criminals place to hide)."	No data	No data	No data	No data	"Same as with the prickly pear--with black wattle also, there has been little effort to eradicate/control the species. People have adapted to it instead."	"Outsiders (e.g., Forestry officials, PFM members) felt that Black Wattle densities could be increased in woodlots, to allow for more formal management of the timber. They felt that more active management of Black Wattle by the community could help resolve the problem of criminals in dense wattle. "	No data	No data	"gMost (77%) respondents perceived Black Wattle to have arrived before they were born. The remaining 23% said that the Black Wattle had arrived later, with the date ranging between 1926 and 1970. The oldest informant claimed the Black Wattle came from settlers from Cathcart over the mountains in the late 1920s. All interviewees were aware that Black Wattle was an alien species.h (Shackleton et al. 2007, p. 119)"	Seen as a readily available resource of fuelwood and timber. But also viewed unfavourably from a cultural perspective (esp. where it encroaches riparian areas and sacred pools. Also viewed as a danger to personal safety (with dense stands providing criminals shelter). 	"View the wind dispersal of seeds as one reason driving the species spread. Also attribute its increase to fertile soils, and a suitable climate. (Some also view ongoing efforts to eradicate the species via the government's Working for Water programme as helping to spread the IAS.)"	"gc both species have been features of the landscape for at least two generations, such that local people had become acclimatised to them, and viewed them as an integral, if not natural, part of the landscape. Thus, it is not a case of opportunistic use, but a long-term adaptation to a permanent feature of the landscape, aesthetically, functionally and economically.h (Shackleton et al. 2007, p. 121)"	"Catha villagers, Amatola, South Africa"																																																																													
	"Patricia Howard, LA Chpt. 6"	2021/6/30	Shackleton et al. 2017. Chromolaena odorata (Siam weed) in Eastern Africa: Distribution and Socio-ecological Impacts).	"Wakulya, Wajaluo and Wajita and many smaller clans in the Mara region of Tanzania. 90% depend on crop production, 88% own livestock, 36% below poverty line, 63% with fields from 1.5-2 ha"	Semi-structured survey of 240 households comparing 4 districts with varying levels of C. odorata invasion (high to low density)	"Chromolaena odorata ranked as 'worst plant invader in both range- and croplands' - other [alien] nvasives include Lantana camara, Opuntia stricta, Argemone species..Striga hermonthic is a native invasive."	Spread	"No formal records but experts say present 10-15 years; IPLC report 4-10 years. Invasion is at a fairly early stage..further spread can be expected. Town of Tarime is considered to be source of spread, with wide and dense invasions..is moving southward, where isolated plants are interspersed with small stand and occasionally larger stands confined to riparian zones or fallow croplands. Also moving to the East, threatening Serengeti National Park"	"Natural drivers, Land-use and Sea-use change, IAS"	Natural: Suitable climate; Land use change: overgrazing and deforestation; IAS - multiple other invasive species.	"Science, technology, and knowledge, Economic"	"Socio-ecological stressors that threaten livelihoods include  Economic:  insufficient water and grazing resources, prevalence of livestock diseases, multiple other invasive species; Indirect drivers: overgrazing and deforestation [not mentioned but likley the result of invasions, lack of land access, population growth although population density is not higher than average]"	No data	"High density invasion reduces native grasses, shrubs and trees; water availability"	Some use C. odorata for hedging and as a medicinal.	"Negative impacts  reported significantly more in high-density areas compared with low density. Impaired access & movement; problems with water availability; livestock impacts (forage loss, health, outputs)  crop losses."	No data	"75% of those with dense invasions, 50% with less dense manage in rangelands by slashing at ground level; 23% occasionally use fire. Croplands - cleared every few months high density areas, 2-3 times/year in low density (slashing and hoeing to remove root stocks)"	Rangelands - roots aren't removed so plants readily coppice and require repeated control. People want support for management from outsiders	Reduce crop and livestock losses	No data	No data	"In areas where C. odorata is abundant, more households (42%) pay for labour to clear fields, compared to those in areas with less dense stands (21%). "	"Wages for people clearing land are higher in areas with dense invasions, with an average of US$ 550 compared to US$ 340 per annum."	"Loss of crop yields - 90% report in high-density invasions areas versus 74% in areas with less dense invasions. Losses average over 50%. Higher-density areas - loss of 10 livestock/year; 5 livestock yr. in less dense areas. negative effects on milk quality, livestock weight and health,  even blamed for causing livestock death."	"Material and immaterial assets, Health (mental and physical)"	No data 	"No data, but labour costs and labour time for management must have a negative impact on livelihoods; loss of livestock and livestock outputs, and of crops, must have negative impacts on food security and health of especially the poorest."	No data	Not reported	No data 	No data	"The district agriculture officers educated the farmers on proper application of pesticides and to scout their farms regularly to identify signs of FAW invasion.  At the initial stage of invasion, FAW is in the larvae stage and we informed the farmers to spray early to kill the pestf"	District agricultural officers and private agrochemical companies provide advice and supply pesticides; district agriculture officers train farmers to identify FAW and attempt to prevent invasions.	"The participants noted that they derived their knowledge of pesticides application from the district agriculture officers, farmer-to-farmer extension, and certified agrochemical retailers in the district. Participants greported their familiarity with crop pests such as weevils, stem borers, and grasshoppers, but not with FAWhc gthere seemed to be a mis-conception among some participants that local maize variety was more resistant to FAW than improved maize varieties...  gSelf-induced adaptation strategies  were transferred between farmers and communities due to social relations and network. For instance, HH25 hinted that eI heard of the washing detergent solution from my friend who also reported that he was informed by a friend farmer in another community"	"The continuous invasion of FAW may reduce annual yields of maize in the district, which may affect the national volume of maize production. FAW invasion may also lead to hunger. Urgent need to intensify FAW education among small-holder farmers...Without that, farmers...will resort to unapproved control measures, which may pose danger to health, environment, food production, and securityc. sensitizing farmers on existing pesticides and pest management practices, which have been proven to be effective in controlling FAWc. the capacity of extension agents should be improved through education, technology, and infrastructure to enable them align to the needs of farmers and strengthen their technical assistance, especially to vulnerable communitiesh...need for research into alternative chemical pesticides using local raw materials to reduce high cost associated with agrochemicals..such as agro-ecological strategies, biological control such as ladybirdscpush-pull technology, zero tillage and regular weeding"	"Farmers greported their familiarity with crop pests such as weevils, stem borers, and grasshoppers, but not with FAW"	"gthere seemed to be a mis-conception among some participants that local maize variety was more resistant to FAW than improved maize varieties, which a farmer reacted to as ethe pest attacked every variety. It is only at the point of storage that we can say local variety of maize is more resistant to weevils than improved varietiesf [so, differences between farmers vis a vis perception of maize variety resistance to FAW]"	gthe respondents generally believe that FAW in the district is largely due to climate changeh 	No data	"Wakulya, Wajaluo, Wajita and many smaller clans of Mara region"																																																																													
	"Patricia Howard, LA Chpt. 6"	20-Aug-21	Shackleton et al. 2017.Distribution and socio-ecological impacts of the invasive alien cactus Opuntia stricta in eastern Africa.	"2014. Small town of Dol Dol and neighboring villages in the northeast of Laikipia County, central Kenya. Mainly Mukogodo Maasai pastoralists who have recently adopted a semi-sedentary lifestyle "	"200 residents of Dol Dol. Pastoralists (36%),  housewives or not employed (33%), 18% unskilled labour,  (13%) working skilled jobs or owning small businesses. All had livestock."	"semi-structured questionnaires. Information on the presence and status of O. stricta  was recorded during roadside surveys in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Rwanda and Ethiopia. These surveys took place between 2008 and 2015, and covered tens of thousands of kilometres "	Spread	"Invasions of O. stricta  are perceived to be widespread and increasing in many different environments in the Dol Dol area - majority said has been there more than 10 years.  All said present on livestock grazing land. Two-thirds of respondents (estimated that O. stricta  covered 50?75% of their grazing land, while 20% thought it was less widespread, and 10% thought it was more widespread. All respondents (100%) thought that O. stricta  invasions were increasing in their area "	Natural drivers	"Most respondents ([ 25%) believed it to be spread by wildlife (primarily baboons) or livestock, or that it spread naturally on its own, with fewer (14%) mentioning that it was spread by people "	No data	No data	"50% said it increases biodiversity (trees, shrubs, because invaded areas are protected from livestock browsing of native seedlings"	Reduces wildlife populations	20% report eating fruit - more men than women; but can only be eaten in moderation and it is difficult to remove spines.	"100% - negative impact on livestock health (blindness, gastro-intestinal damage redulting in weight loss and reduction in milk production, often followed by death), reduction in tribe quality, hinder human and livestock movement to water sources, homesteads and grazing lands, reduced access to grasses for livestock, 43% said loss of useful plants, especially medicinals"	No data	"Only 20% had attempted to remove or control the spread, significantly more women. 29% of these burnt the plants, and 98% used slashing, cutting, digging and burning. 7% paid others to help clear infestations (< US$ 100 per ha). 89% heard of biological control and 88% had seen the cochineal a on Opuntia spp. in the area; 36% thought biological control was safe while the rest were unsure"	"there is currently little control, and that which is being undertaken focusses mainly on physical removal and burning which is time-consuming, expensive and largely ineffective, especially if all the roots and/or cladodes are not removed"	"All said a reduction in density would improve grazing land, livestock health and livelihoods, and 99% said it would increase land value "	No data	No data	Significantly more women respondents reported managing O. stricta than men.	Only 7% of respondents reported paying people to help to clear infestations and payments were all less than US$ 100 per ha.	"in the past year they had lost an average of 9 goats, 7 sheep, and 15 cattle due to Opuntia. Mean annual losses of between US$500-100 and US$100-500 per household for 48% and 30% of respondents, respectively."	"No data, Material and immaterial assets"	No data 	"in the past year they had lost an average of 9 goats, 7 sheep, and 15 cattle due to Opuntia. Mean annual losses of between US$500-100 and US$100-500 per household for 48% and 30% of respondents, respectively."	No data	No data	No data 	No data	"The SP has had an impact on fisheries governance and the conditions for local fishing communities through financial support and political initiatives. The SP came into existence in 1989, at a time of crisis in the cod fisheries. The fisheries crisis in coastal Sami districts became one of its first core issues. The SP soon gained status as a legitimate voice for the concerns of Sami small-scale fishers, a marginalized group within the Norwegian Fishermenfs Association. The parliament has been engaged in a long-term political struggle to secure fishing rights and access to the fishery for Sami fishers, and, although the results of the SPs initiatives to reform fisheries policies during the past 20 years have been modest, some progress has been made, as the new management regime for red king crab demonstrates."	"The Sami Parliament gained status as a legitimate voice for the concerns of Sami small-scale fishers, a marginalized group within the Norwegian Fishermenfs AssociationcThe Norwegian Fishermenfs Association initially criticized the arrangement as discriminatory but has now more or less accepted it as an exception to the general rule of equal access to the fishery, irrespective of residence. According to the 2006 consultation agreement between the SP and the Norwegian government, grounded in International Labour Organization Convention 169 on Indigenous and Tribal Peoples in Independent Countries, the SP has a right to be consulted on all matters of importance for the Sami."	No data	"there is reason to believe that the sum of governance changes invoked by SP fisheries policies since 1989, investment support for the small-scale fleet, improved access to the cod and red king crab fishery for open group fishers, and better resource protection within the fjord areas through prohibition of fishing with active gear inside the fjord lines have had a significant impact on the fisheries in Unj?rga and Pors??gu and contributed to the recent rise in the number of fishers."	Initially seen as a pest but later as a major economic resource.	Initially seen as a pest but later as a major economic resource.	"local fishermen usually explain cod disappearance as an effect of excessive fishing by Danish seiners on local cod populations ? in a few sites, cod has begun to recover, but The coastal cod stock complex has been dramatically reduced since the 1980s and has been listed as severely threatened since 2006."	"During the 1990s, red king crab gradually became a source of income for Unj?rga fishers, and, because the cod had returned, the traditional cod fishery could now be combined with the new crab fishery. In Pors??gu, the options in the 1990s were different. With a cod crisis starting in the period from 1987 to 1989 and with no alternative commercial species available in the fjord, municipal support and SP funds could not effectively maintain the local fishery until red king crab turned up in 2005. Combined with changes in fisheries governance, the arrival of red king crab has opened up a new livelihood option for fishers, resulting in a transformation of the fishery that has been beneficial for the communities. Odd as it may seem, an irreversible change in the ecosystem has contributed positively to the reorganization and resilience of the social-ecological system.  "	Mukogodo Maasai and other pastoralists																																																																													
	"Bharat B Shrestha, LA Ch. 6 and Zenia Ruiz-Utilla  independent consultant"	"21/8/2021,  21/09/2021 ERC merged"	"Shrestha et al., 2019, Community perception and prioritization of invasive alien plants in Chitwan-Annapurna Landscape, Nepal "	Diverse IPLC inhabiting Gangetic plain (Tarai region in the south) to High Mountain regions; Chitwan-Annapurna Landscape and three adjoining Tarai districts in central Nepal; May-June 2016	Informants: 218 people (52% male and 48% female) with the mean age of 46 } 11 years (range: 20?75). Executive or general members of the Community Forest Users' Groups (CFUGs) and local farmers resided in the Annapurna Conservation Area. Methods: Focus group discussions (FGDs)	"Sixteen invasive alien plants were reported as problematic in agroecosystems; among them highly problematic were Ageratum houstonianum, Pistia stratiotes, Parthenium hysterophorus, Oxalis latifolia, Bidens pilosa, and Ageratina adenophra. Similarly, twelve species were reported as problematic in natural ecosystems; highly problematic among them were Chromolaena odorata, Ageratina adenophora, Lantana camara, Mikania micrantha, and Parthenium hysterophorus. Others included: Argemone mexicana; Galinsoga quadriradiata, Ipomoea carnea ssp. fistulosa, Spermacoce alata, Mimosa pudica. "	"Spread, Introduction "	"All the species mentioned are spreading: Mikania micrantha: Introduction 5?6 years ago. Introduction pathway: roadsides
Spermacoce alata: Introduction pathway: came with the seeds of forage plants distributed to the farmers by the Department of Livestock Service, Government of Nepal. Ageratum houstonianum: ""is spreading rapidly in Nepal (Siwakoti et al., 2016)c A.  houstonianum was not considered problematic 11 years ago in the national level assessment (Tiwari et al., 2005), probably due to sparse occurrence, but a recent survey has reported this species as the fifth most frequent out of 23 IAPs in Nepal and has had an upslope range expansion of>800m since previous reports (Siwakoti et al., 2016)h (Shrestha et al., 2019, 45)."	No data	No data	"No data, Politics, governance and institutions"	"Politics, governance and institutions: Spermacoce alata came with the seeds of forage plants distributed to the farmers by the Department of Livestock Service, Government of Nepalh (Shrestha et al., 2019, 41)."	No data	"The invasive alien plants gCompetitively displaced native species and reduced biodiversity and forest regenerationh. gFour IAPs were mentioned to have impacts on biodiversity. The most frequently reported (50% of the total focus group) impact was the reduction of biodiversity and prevention of forest regeneration due to Chromolaena odorata, particularly in Tarai, Siwalik and Middle Mountain regions. gAccording to the participants, C. odorata and other IAPs (Ageratina adenophora, Lantana camara and Mikania micrantha) had similar impacts; they formed impenetrable and mono-dominant stands smothering other vegetation and preventing native tree seedling establishment. This situation had not only reduced forest regeneration but also minimized the supply of forage to wild and domestic animals.h"	"More harmful effects reported, but some beneficial. 10 IAP with benefits. ""C. odorata, L. camara and A. adenophora were reported as the sources of biomass for compost, charcoal and bio-briquette. These species were used and sometimes preferred where they were found abundantly and could be collected easily.  Ageratum conyzoides, Bidens pilosa, Galinsoga quadriradiata and Mimosa pudica were also used as forage for livestock and these IAPs were not considered as harmful as other agriculture weeds with no fodder value such as Parthenium hysterophorus and A. houstonianum. Participants also reported medicinal and culinary uses of some IAPs. The paste of fresh leaves of C. odorata, A. adenophora and A. conyzoides was used to treat cuts and wounds. The root of Amaranthus spinosus was used to treat urinary tract obstruction by local villages while the tender shoot of this species was consumed as a vegetable. Regulating services of some of the IAPs reported by the participants were: control of floods by Ipomoea carnea ssp. fistulosa, and stabilization of landslides by A. adenophora and I. carnea ssp. fistulosa.h (Shrestha et al., 2019, 42)."	"Poisoned livestock: ga lower number of IAPs (four species) were reported as causing livestock poisoningc Slightly more than half (53%) of the FGDs reported poisoning effects of Ageratum houstonianum on livestock that included stomach swelling, dysentery and a loss of appetite. The death of livestock due to the feeding on this weed was reported in an FGD conducted in Bara district of the Tarai region (Shrestha et al., 2019, 41). Reduced forage production: Participants also noted that while collecting forage, separating A. houstonianum from the forage collected from the invaded areas was cumbersome if not impossible. When such forage with high amounts of A. houstonianum was supplied to stall feeding livestock, animals suffered from health problems. The participants also reported that flowers had more toxic effects than vegetative parts of this planth (Shrestha et al., 2019, 41). Increased labor input and reduced production in agriculture: gThe participants also reported that five species of IAPs in agroecosystems resulted in increased labor input for weeding and those IAPs also competed for nutrients with crops thereby reducing the crop yieldh (Shrestha et al., 2019, 41).  gIn total nine IAPs were attributed to the reduced forage supply in natural ecosystems such as grassland and forest (both free grazing and forage collection for stall feeding)h (Shrestha et al., 2019, 41)."	No data	"There is no control or management plan; however, some framers have practiced manually uprooting and the use of herbicides (in Rupandehi district of the Tarai region) to control I. carnea ssp. fistulosa ten years ago. Half of the FGD participants reported that they did not put any effort towards the management of IAPs. Using IAP for biomass is an adaptation not a planned management and control activitity, but it has reduced the spread. "	"Effectiveness: Some people have practiced manually uprooting but gthe respondents did mention that this had no significant impact on controlling the spread of IAPs elsewhereh (Shrestha et al., 2019, 42).guse of herbicide for the control of Ipomoea carnea ssp. fistulosa about 10 years back when the species was rapidly spreading. That had led to control of the species and it was not considered problematic at the time of this study.h  (Shrestha et al., 2019, 42)."	Management of invasive alien plants in agroecosystems were mainly to reduce their abundance. Biomass of the invasive alien plants were used for composting because they were most abundant and available in accessible areas.	Utilisation of invasive species	"gChromolaena odorata, Lantana camara and Ageratina adenophora were reported as the sources of biomass for compost, charcoal and bio-briquettecc.. Ageratum conyzoides, Bidens pilosa, Galinsoga quadriradiata and Mimosa pudica were also used as forage for livestock. c. Participants also reported medicinal and culinary uses of some IAPs. The paste of fresh leaves of C. odorata, A. adenophora and Ageratum conyzoides was used to treat cuts and wounds. The root of Amaranthus spinosus was used to treat urinary tract obstruction by local villages while the tender shoot of this species was consumed as a vegetable.h (Shrestha et al., 2019, 45)."	"Increased labor: gThe participants also reported that five species of IAPs [Ageratum houstonianum, Oxalis latifolia, Pistia stratiotes, Argemone mexicana and Galinsoga quadriradiata] in agroecosystems resulted in increased labor input for weedingc.h (Shrestha et al., 2019, 41)."	Some farmers have practiced manually uprooting. There is not a report about economic cost.	"Some species have been reported as gReduced forage production and increased time for forage collection from the wild (natural ecosystems)h (Shrestha et al., 2019, 41). These species are: Ageratina adenophora, Spermacoce alata, Ageratum houstonianum, Chromolaena odorata, Bidens pilosa, Parthenium hysterophorus, Lantana camara, Mimosa pudica and Mikania micrantha"	Material and immaterial assets	"Material and immaterial assets:gCommunities responded and adapted to the increasing abundance of IAPs by converting IAPs biomass into useful products such as compost, charcoal and bio-briquette, which has been noted elsewhere such as in the case of L. camara in India (Kannan et al., 2016) and Acacia dealbata in South Africa (Ngorima and Shackleton, this issue). Some of these products have a market value (Singh, 2013) and can help to diversify incomes (Rai et al., 2012). They can partly compensate for the loss of provisioning services (e.g., fodder supply) of the invaded ecosystems. Biomass and other utilization can also be considered as a cultural method of IAPs management and a potential strategy to reduce costs and improve benefits of invasive species (Radosevich et al., 2007; Kannan et al., 2016)h (Shrestha et al., 2019, 45). "	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	"Communities gwere not aware of the origin, dispersal, and long-term impacts of IAPsh (Shrestha et al., 2019, 44) but has perceived negative impacts and has implemented some strategies of manual control. "	"There are some proposals from authors to improve the management of invasive species in this communities. 
gThe national level network of CFUGsc can be instrumental for disseminating knowledge and information related to biological invasions to the grassroots levelh (Shrestha et al., 2019, 45).
gintegrating community perception into the management planning of IAPsh (Shrestha et al., 2019, 45).
gcommunity prioritization exercise should be developed further into prioritization plans and regional or national strategies, that also draws on ecological, and economic data as well as spatial planning based on the abundance of the various IAPs (Radosevich et al., 2007>; Larson et al., 2011; van Wilgen et al., 2011)h  (Shrestha et al., 2019, 46)."	"Informants did not have any concept or definition about invasive species, even when authors made a transcription of the invasive alien plants concept (Meechaha baihya banaspati). Also, informants had not been any information about impacts of invasions from any particular or governmental agency."	"IPLC perspective: gThe participants of three FGDs conducted in Makawanpur, two in Bara, and one in Kaski districts expressed strong willingness to initiate commercial productions of charcoal and biobriquettes from the biomass of IAPs if they were provided training and technical supporth (Shrestha et al., 2019, 42)."	"gParticipants of all FGDs did not know the meaning of ginvasive alien plantsh even when the Nepali translation of the phrase (Meechaha baihya banaspati) was used in the discussioncHowever, some participants had a living memory of the arrival of some of the IAPs in their localitiescAlthough most of the participants of the FGDs had been experiencing a range of negative impacts from the IAPs, they had not been formally informed about the consequences of biological invasions in relation to biodiversity and agriculture productionh. (Shrestha et al., 2019, 41)."	"gThe reported negative impacts of IAPs during the FGDs can be grouped into four broad categories: impacts on agriculture production, livestock poisoning, reduced forage supply, and loss of biodiversity and prevention of forest regenerationh  (Shrestha et al., 2019, 41). Specific species listed in the impacts columns."	"Participants recognize that the invasion is a consequence of a politics, governance and institutions participation. gthe FGD participants from the Binayi CFUG of Dumkibas, Nawalparasi districtc further remarked that Spermacoce alata came with the seeds of forage plants distributed to the farmers by the Department of Livestock Service, Government of Nepalh (Shrestha et al., 2019, 41).
The communities consider that resource extraction (direct driver) is affected by the presence of the invasive species. It is considered as negative impact and is defined as greduced forage production and increased time for forage collection from the wild (natural ecosystems)h (Shrestha et al., 2019, 41)."	"Communities perceives some positive impacts and uses alien species for food, as medicinal, for forage, composting, bio-briquette and charcoal. Even they are interested in commercialize some of these products. But they also perceived negative impacts. "	"Diverse inhabitants of Gangetic plain,  Chitwan-Annapurna and other Tarai districts"																																																																													
	"Elena Tricarico, LA Chpt. 2"	2021/7/11	"Silcok (2018) Aboriginal Translocations: The Intentional Propagation and
Dispersal of Plants in Aboriginal Australia"	Aboriginal Australians	Aboriginal Australians; literature and different source review (details in the word file); expert opinion	"Over 50 species were recorded as being deliberately translocated by Aboriginal
Australians, including at least 20 trees and shrubs, 13 tuberous species (mostly yams), nine non-tuberous herbs, and seven
grasses."	Introduction 	"""Most species were subject to numerous types of translocations. Introductions were the most common type, documented for 31 speciesc. while assisted migrations into new areas outside the apparent indigenous range of the species were documented for 19. Ten records involve post-contact translocations, mostly of important food or ceremonial plants taken back to gardens to maintain connection with sites where they grow in the absence of regular visits"" (Silcock 2018)"	Resource extraction	"Species were translocated for food and other materials, for their ceremonial or cultural importance."	Socio-cultural	Some species are important for ceremony and rituals.	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	Utilisation of invasive species	"Species were translocated mainly for food and other materials, and for rituals. "	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	"The attitude towards IAS management is different according to the different part of the community (Indigenous rangers vs other Indigenous people). h.. This observation reflects a tension inherent in local understandings of what the ranger program provides the community. While community members tended to see this program as a means to gproperlyh care for the entire region where outstations are no longer inhabited, they also described it as ga new system introduced by the governmenth and as interfering with the way land and sea management should be organized.h (Fache 2021)"	The two approach  (combining Indigenous and nonindigenous knowledge and perspective) is considered. 	"Indigenous rangers gained information from nonindigenous people (e.g. in training course, through booklet)."	"Even if with some constraints and aspects to be improved, the two way approach is encouraging in order to gempower local Indigenous people so they can regain control of the management of their ancestral landcand to offer an alternative to the integration of indigenous knowledge in scientific protocols pre-established through top-down processesh. (Fache 2021)"	"g..the Indigenous rangers based in Ngukurr defined gweedsh as exogenous plants (coming from Africa, Asia, or America) that were introduced in Australia ga long time agoh and that have become gpests,h meaning invasive plants that compete with and therefore threaten gnative plants and treesc. gFeral animalsh is a generic category referring to introduced animal species, initially domesticated but returned to an untamed state.h (Fache 2021)"	Exclusion areas to assess the impacts of feral animals.	No data	No data	Aboriginal people 																																																																													
	"Ellen Ryan-Colton, fellow CH4"	25/07/2021 ERC	Sloane et al 2018. Western and Indigenous knowledge converge to explain Melaleuca forest dieback on Aboriginal land in northern Australia 	"Yolgnu people in the Laynhapuy Indigenous Protected Area (IPA), north-east Arnhem Land, Northern Territory, Australia, May 2016"	Rangers and senior elders from 5 different Yolgnu clans. Cross cultural co-designed project. 5 flooplain study sites. Initial consultation followed by semi-structured interviews with senior elders. Interviews in English of yolgnu language and translated. Also ecological characteristics measured at dead and alive sites of Melaleuca dieback. 	Feral Buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) and Feral pig (Sus scrofa)	Establishment	Feral animals started damaging country after IPLC senior people were young people. Dieback has occurred for at least the last 20-40 years. 	Climate change	"There were multiple factors that were identified as drivers of the impact on IPLC ? which is coastal Melaleuca dieback, with flow on impacts to Yolgnu livelihoods. Feral animals were one of these drivers, whereby their trampling, swim channels, wallowing, and browsing created pathways for further salt water intrusion which caused plant dieback in a freshwater system. Other intrelated drivers of the impact is climate change and sea level rise, with more salt water intruding into freshwater systems, and more cyclones and storm surges due to climate change, which again brings in more saltwater. ""gSenior knowledge holders Jimmy Wunungmurra and Manman Wirrpanda explained that the creation of channels by feral ungulates is likely to be driving the intrusion of salt water towards the flood plain margin, where Melaleuca forest occurs, resulting in dieback.h (Sloane et al 2018 pg 133); gHe mentioned that buffalo and pig populations, in addition to climate change, may also be involved. Saltwater, coming with the tide. High tide coming in y sometimes the water comes from underneath, the salty water. When the high tide or cyclone [comes], the water was coming in to where that paperbark tree [is found]y The buffaloes there, they put their body [on the tree] and scratch you knowy Wild pigs. They are breeding morey The climate difference you know changingy The weather change.h (Sloane et al 2019 pg 131). "	No data	No data	No data	"Feral buffalo and pig are causing increased soil salinity in a freshwater floodplain, which is one of the main causes of Dieback of coastal Melaleuca species and disappearance of water chestnut (Eleocharis dulchis).  About 70% of the decline in Melaleuca can be attrubuted to feral buffalo and pig damage and increased soil salinity. "	No data	"Because feral buffalo and pig are one of the main causes of Meleuca dieback by increasing soil salinity, this is causing loss of bushfoods, loss of livelihoods, and loss of strength, health and wellbeing for Yolgnu people, as their freshwater system is of great cultural importance and they are deeply connected to its health."	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	"Health (mental and physical), Social, spiritual and cultural relations, Material and immaterial assets"	No data	"Material/immaterial assets: loss of bushfoods, loss of livelihoods; Health: loss of strength, health and wellbeing for Yolgnu people, as their freshwater system is of great cultural importance and they are deeply connected to its health. IPLC feel sick when the country is sick.  Cultural relations: their spiritual country is being affected. ""That means it [the dieback] is killing our lives for Yolgnu people. For Yolgnu life the place itself knows us. People living in this Country, they know their Country and the Country knows them. A long time ago everything there was strong and healthy, everything wasnft damaged and today dead trees, no food, no longnecked turtle, where before rich people and rich country [in resources].h (Sloane et al 2019 pg 129)"	Cultural institutions	No data	"Cultural laws and identity for the 5 clan groups are connected to the freshwater country, but with more saltwater intrusion (accelerated by feral animals) and impacts like dieback, clans are worried about their country, which is their cultural institution. gWhy am I worrying? Because wefve got name on that Country, wefve got songlines, wefve got stories, wefve got paintings. This is how important.h (Sloane et al 2019 pg 129)"	No data	No data	IPLC are  working cross-culturally with non-IPLC - gSomehow we can try to help each other to [make a] plan [to] come up balance same again y Yolngu and ?apaki [non Aboriginal people] balancing together.h.	"IPLC have knowledge about the impacts (Melaleuca dieback) through dreamtime stories/cultural legend, Also knowledge about IAS and impacts through personal observations since childhood. "	No data	feral animals are vistors that cause damage	"All impacts are harmful - that feral buffalo and pig are accelerating the saltwater intrusion that is causing dieback of coastal Melaleuca, and key bushfood species, that then negatively affecting Yolgnu liveliohoods, health and cultural institutions which rely on the health of country. "	"An understanding of multiple drivers of Melaleuca dieback, including feral animals creating channels in the floodplain, weather changes and climate change, rising tides, saltwater mixing with the freshwater which kills the roots of the paperbark tree, cyclones and storms. Feral pigs are breeding more, and feral buffalo come and rub againgst the Melaueca. "	"Feral animals are threatening the livelihoods and wellbeing of IPLC because their health is tied to the health of the Country. Their stories, dreaming, songs are at risk from the impact of Melaeuca dieback, caused in part by feral animals. "	"Yolgnu aboriginals, Laynhapuy Indigenous protected area"																																																																													
	"Ellen Ryan-Colton, fellow CH4"	13/07/2021 ERC	"Smith et al 2010. Impacts of a Fish Kill at Lake Kutubu, Papua New Guinea "	"eFoef indigenous people, around Lake Kutubu, (altitude 808m) in the Southern Highlands Province of Papua New Guinea (PNG)."	"12 semi-structured interviews with fisherpeople and local representatives, 6 semi-structured interviews with fish farmers from 3 villages, and general observations and data collection with fishers/fish farmers. "	"Exotic fish species: Common carp (Cyprinus carpio) and two species of tilapia, Tilapia rendalli and Oreochromis mossambicus. Also possibly includes gbestah (snow trout ? Schizothorax richardsonii)
Exotic plant: Water Hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes)
Exotic fungal pathogen that causes epizootic ulcerative syndrome (EUS) disease ? Aphanomyces sp
"	Establishment	"Fish + water hyacinth: Established now ? introduced and spread at various times since 1990s. Early fish farms close to Lake established in 1990s. Heavy rains in 1995  released them into catchment. Lakeside Fish farms established in 2009 to 2011. Heavy rains in 2010, 2011 and 2012 released fish (and water hyacinth) into Lake. Now exotic fish are the most abundant fish in the Lake, based no fish catches. Fungal pathogen:  established now. Caused fish kill from December 2012 to end of 2013. IPLC indicate this is the first time for this type of fish kills. "	"Resource extraction, Pollution, IAS, Natural drivers, Land-use and Sea-use change"	"Resource extraction: pipeline built for oil extraction near Lake used clay, and clay spilt into lake, deteriorating water quality, and combined with natural drivers (heavy rains) promoted the outbreak of exotic fungal pathogen EUS disease, causing major fish kill. Pollution: from the clay particles into the water. Natural drivers: heavy rains also promoted outbreak of EUS disease. Heavy rains also washed the exotic fish and plants from fish farms into the lake catchment. IAS: introduced tilapia and carp causing impacts to native species, reducing fishing stocks and opoportunities to continue this livelihood. Also could have carried in the funal pathogen but not confirmed. Land-use change: change from artisanal small-sclae fishing to fish farming which introduced exotic fish and plants to the fish farms, which they escaped into the lake during heavy rains. "	"Politics, governance and institutions, Economic, Demographic , Science, technology, and knowledge"	"Economic: Oil companies set up the first fish farm demotsrations near the Lake, stocked with introduced species, and also contributed pollution (clay particles) to the Lake which encouraged outbreak of exotic fungal pathogen. Polictics and institutions: Governments and internal aid agencies (NGOs) have encouraged fish farming. Demographic: population tripled around the Lake after oil was found nearby, so this placed pressure on fish stocks and why fish framing was encouraged. Knowledge: Fish farmers lacked education and proper training about how to farm fish, leading to over stocking, poor quality and use of Water hyacinth (exotic plant) as a fish food.  "	No data	"Native fish killed by epxtic funal pathogen. Mostly soft-bodied fish impacted, some other species less affected. Native crayfish reduced in numbers due to compteition with tilapia. "	No data	"IPLC stopped fishing when the fish kill began, and recommenced only after it ended, but fewer people are fishing as some have abandoned this activity. "	No data	No data	"fish farming not economically viable or effective, and therefore they are not stopping exotic fish from excping into the lake with heavy rains. gThis study found that fish farming is not economically viable at Lake Kutubu because farmers have not been trained; they do not have husbandry skills; they do not have locally available fish feed; and their ponds are too small.h (Smith et al 2010 pg 31). "	No data	"Abandonment, Utilisation of invasive species"	"Most IPLC stopped fishing during fish kill, with number of fishers dramatically lower ? due to fear of eating diseased fish but also native fish numbers were far reduced. People are catching exotic fish now as part of their catch.  "	Fewer fishers (33 in 2013) after the disease outbreak compared to more before the outbreak (111 fishers in 1995 and 1997).	No data	"Annual Total fish catch 5 times lower after disease outbreak (estimated as 22, 000 kg in 2013) compared to before outbreak (estimated as 70,100kg in 1995 and 1997). "	Material and immaterial assets	No data	Abandonment of fishing activities by some IPLC	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	"frustration at oil companies, NGOs and government for lack of response to fish kills."	No data 	No data	No data	"native fish species got sick and died during a major fish kill and then some IPLC stopped fishing, and abandoned fishing for livelihoods. "	"oil companies put in a pipe, which released pollutants into the water which contributed to the fish kills. This was combined with heavy rains, which created conditions for the fish kill.  Because there was diseased fish, and less fish overall, this made IPLC stop fishing. "	"IPLC are fish farming with the exotic species, and exotic species are now the most caught fish in the Lake. So they do eat the fish, but less people are fishing now. "	"Foe people, Lake Kutubu"																																																																													
	"Romina Fernandez, Fellow Chpt.4"	28/06/2021 RF	Souza et al. 2018-Local ecological knowledge concerning the invasion of Amerindian lands in the northern Brazilian Amazon by Acacia mangium (Willd.)	"Moskow, Malacacheta and and S?o Domingos indigenous communities. Roraima State, Brazil, between 2013 and 2015"	"""Informant selection was performed based on data collected from local health centers and included community leaders and ex-leaders, foremen, teachers, and other community members A total of 94 people participated in the project as informants , 90 from the Wapichana ethnic group and four from the Macuxi ethnic group, of both sexes, with ages between 18 and 76""/ Semistructured interviews"	"Acacias spp., Acacia mangium, the gforeign planth"	Spread	gindigenous communities in Roraima have experienced severe social-environmental impacts due to the rapid spread of A. mangiumh 	Land-use and Sea-use change	"gInitial interest in producing cellulose and lumber in Roraima resulted in the planting of 30,000 ha of A. mangium in natural savanna ecosystems (gLavradoh) during the early 1990s, near the lands of the Wapichana and Macuxi Amerindiansh "	No data	No data	No data	"""diminishing water volumes (in wetlands, rivers, and wells); alterations in water color (turbidity); well water becoming salty; and wells having reduced volumes or even drying uphcgIn the category related to the disequilibrium of the regional fauna are problems related to the increased presence of bees, snakes, and rats and diminishing quantities of fish because of the problems with water"""	no data	"gThe most frequent citations referred to the degradation of water resources (71.3%), farming losses (60.6%), increased labor necessary to prepare and maintain their crop fields (41.5%), and disturbances of the local fauna """	No data	"""The trees are generally burnt, but their remains are left on the ground (because removing them demands excessive effort and energy). 
gI weed out the acacia first thing because they form many roots quickly, and if you just cut them theyfll grow right back. You canft let them grow, or theyfll produce more seeds"""	"gThere are reports of people giving up planting a plot due to the excessive work required to remove all of the acacia trees, as explained by a resident of S?o Domingos: gI just didnft want to plant there again, I was going to just use a machine to clear the area, but the acacias are very nasty plants.h/ gThe most efficient way to remove them is to pull them out by their roots; only that will guarantee that they will not re-sprout"""	Farmers: to protect their farm plots	"Changes in cropping systems, Changes in fishing systems and Changes in wild resource systems"	"Changes in cropping systems: gOur food plots used to produce many fruits, like bananas and pineapples, but now nothing grows well. The acacias are attracting many noxious creatures to our lands, and we donft have much maize because of the bees, because when the maize begins to flower the bees drain them. We are surrounded by acacia, but those plants donft yield any fruits that we can eat, and those plants are creating many problemsh  Changes in fishing systems: gAnother serious problem attributed to the acacia is the proliferation of Africanized bees. These bees make travel to fishing spots, or areas with buriti palms (to collect material used in making handicrafts), and hunting much more difficulth 
Changes in will resource systems: ""gAbandoned farm plots (gcapoeirah or fallow) are frequently visited to collect fruits and roots (pineapples, bananas, papaya, sweet potatoes, yams, and manioc stems for planting), but they are increasingly dominated by the rapidly proliferating acacia trees. This is extremely vexing, as the farmers will have to remove the trees to clean the land when the plots are replanted """	"gThe trees are generally burnt, but their remains are left on the ground (because removing them demands excessive effort and energy)h ""The invasion of acacias increased labor necessary to prepare and maintain the crop fields."""	No data	"farming losses. gOur food plots used to produce many fruits, like bananas and pineapples, but now nothing grows wellh "	"Material and immaterial assets, Safety and security, Freedom of choice or action"	No data	"Material and immaterial assets: ""Before, we hunted and fished, now we have bees that attack us and acacia plants that invade our farm plots as soon as we clear (burn) them, and they grow even stronger. Ifve killed rattlesnakes there that are attracted by the rats, and there have been more foxes and opossums, which damage the buriti palms. There are no more electric eels, and the water is rusty. You canft drink the water in the Mano? igarap?, and even our wells are drying up. The ing? trees have stopped producing fruit since the acacia appeared""  Safety and security: With the invasion of acacias, the population of African bees increased, which attack both people and animals. Freedom of choice or action: gMany of the indigenous residents manifested their discontent with the restrictions being imposed on movements within their own lands. In some places, they now have to ask permission from the owners of the commercial acacia plantations to go through them; quite frequently they are stopped at the entrances to the plantations to explain where they are going and why""""The invasive A. mangium has altered the routines of the indigenous communities in Roraima, generating problems that affect their subsistence"""	"Settlements / land-use, Social security"	No data	"Settlements / land-use: gThe invasive A. mangium has altered the routines of the indigenous communities in Roraima, generating problems that affect their subsistenceh 
gNow we have acacia damaging our plants. Our community here is being seriously hurt by the acacias""
Social security: gAnother serious problem attributed to the acacia is the proliferation of Africanized beesc
numerous bee attacks on people and animals have been reported""
"	No data	No data	No data	No data	"""Indigenous populations fear that degradation of of water quiality will become much worse in the future. In general,"" ""A. mangium was viewed as a pest species that did not, and never would, bring any benefits at all to the community and would never become an important product in the local economy"""	"""Approximately 49% of the interviewees stated that acacia plants are very different from the native species they are familiar with"" ""The acacias grow more rapidly than garden plants, they ruin the garden plots, after three months you have to rip the acacias out again. Acacias grow very fast. Where that fellow M. had his farm plot in S?o Domingos is pure acacia now. Acacia grows green and pretty, and the leaves donft fall. Acacia grows more rapidly than manioc or the other plants cultivated in our gardens. After it flowers, lots of seeds are produced, they germinate and grow even in the dry season, with nice green leaves; the leaves donft fall, and the leaves are different ? long and thick when it starts growing and then they changeh "	"gAmong the arguments used by indigenous interviewees to support their negative evaluations of acacia plants, the most important was the fact that they gsuckh the water from rivers and wells that serve their communities"". ""There were likewise common complaints that acacias were making the water gbad,h gdirty,h gred,h or grust-colored,h degrading its quality for community consumptionh . ""We live on an island surrounded by acacia plants! Before, we hunted and fished, now we have bees that attack us and acacia plants that invade our farm plots as soon as we clear (burn) them, and they grow even stronger. Ifve killed rattlesnakes there that are attracted by the rats, and there have been more foxes and opossums, which damage the buriti palms. There are no more electric eels, and the water is rusty. You canft drink the water in the Mano? igarap?, and even our wells are drying up. The ing? trees have stopped producing fruit since the acacia appeared. Parrots used to make nests in S?o Domingo, but now the bees have taken over. Rolinha doves used to wake us up and tell us when it was going to rain; now those birds donft exist here anymoreh "	"gthe indigenous populations concerning the dispersal of acacias within the Moskow and Malacacheta ILs, 37% of the interviewees stated that their dispersal was intermediated by birds, by wind (10%), or by bats (6%). However, 46% of the interviewees stated that they had no explanation for the rapid dissemination of those invasive plants to localities distant from the commercial plots"""	""" Many of the interviewees expressed in their answers worries and lamentations about A. mangium: What is our future going to be like? I already know, the acacias suck all the water from the soil and leave it really dry, I have to pull the maniac roots from the hard clay, itfs tiring work. My fear is that in the future wefre going to be without any water if we canft control the acacias. Whofs going to cut the acacia trees in the future, my sons? Wefre going to have a lot more trouble in the future because of the acacias. Ifm worried about the fact that they could take over everything, because theyfre alreadyjust about everywhere: the forest, our farm plots, the banks of the rivers ? Ifm worried that if in the future our children have any way to live, everything will just turn into acacia, my worry is that they will do away with the native plantsh "	"Moskow, Malacacheta & Sao Domingos indigenous  communities"																																																																													
CH.2	"Bharat B Shrestha, LA Ch. 6"	16/7/2021	"Sullivan, A., A. M. York, D. D. White, S. J. Hall, and S. T. Yabiku. 2017. De jure versus de facto institutions: trust, information, and collective efforts to manage the invasive mile-a-minute weed (Mikania micrantha). International Journal of the Commons 11: 171. doi:10.18352/ijc.676."	"Farmers and forest dependent local communities (members of Community Forest Usersf Group) of mixed ethnicity who inhabit in buffer zone area of Chitwan National Park in Chitwan valley, Nepal. May-July 2014."	"Members of five Community Forest Usersf Groups, president of these five usersf group committee, Chitwan National Park officials, buffer zone committee officials, and officials of two non-government organizations.  Twenty nine semi-structured small-group interviews with 87 interviewees; two to ten participants in each group; protocol originally in English was translated in to Nepali language and tested before it was used formally; direct field observation of forest resources harvest by the interviewee. 
gFive interviews were conducted in each community forest, which each included between two and ten participants. The remaining interviews took place in Chitwan National Park, two non-governmental organizations, and the buffer zone committee office.h"	Mikania micrantha (Fam. Asteraceae)	Spread	"gMost interviewees in all five communities believed that Mikania was increasing in abundance, while some thought Mikania presence in their forest was the same when compared to the previous year. cc.  Interviewees in all five communities articulated that increasing Mikania abundance limits food sources for wildlife, resulting in additional large fauna (tigers, rhinos, boar) leaving the forest in search of food.h "	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	"gInterviewees in all five communities articulated that increasing Mikania abundance limits food sources for wildlife, resulting in additional large fauna (tigers, rhinos, boar) leaving the forest in search of foodh "	No data	"gInterviewees in Trishuli, Koshi, and Gandaki (particularly women, who are responsible for most resource collection) expressed that Mikania was impacting how they allotted their daily time, by making collection of forest resources such as grasses and fodder increasingly difficult.h 
gMikania as a problem was discussed by interviewees from every community forest, but only in Ghaghara and Trishuli was it [Mikania] perceived as a chief concern. In these communities Mikania was identified as directly affecting livelihoods by increasing the time and distance to collect forest products.h 
gInterviewees discussed its impact on the time it took to collect grasses, as well as an increase in the distance ventured into the forest to collect grasses not engulfed by Mikania.h
"	No data	"Physical and cultural methods such as fire, cutting/pulling/uprooting "	"gcin cases where Mikania is affecting time budgets and daily lives, people expressed that they lacked resources or relationships [with NGOs, Chitwan National Park, governance committee] that could improve the management situationh.  gcmembers in each case are making Mikania management decisions without consulting their governance committees or other actors, limiting the information available regarding the best ways to successfully remove Mikaniah. gNGO B expressed the opinion that Mikania was not increasing and largely failed to consider community forest membersf opinions regarding Mikania spread and management; this lack of communication negatively impacted the relationship between the members and the organization.h gc. community forest members noted they welcomed and needed new management information because their current efforts [e.g. uprooting, cutting, pulling] frequently resulted in Mikaniafs return.h 
"	No data	Changes in wild resource systems	"gMikania as a problem was discussed by interviewees from every community forest, but only in Ghaghara and Trishuli was it [Mikania] perceived as a chief concern. In these communities Mikania was identified as directly affecting livelihoods by increasing the time and distance to collect forest products.h "	No data	No data	"A portion of annual income of the Community Forest Usersf Group (i.e. forest management committee) is used for the control (e.g. removal) of Mikania. However, there was a wide variation in the proportion of income that was spent for Mikania management."	Material and immaterial assets	No data	Community members have to spend more time or have to walk longer distance to collect fodder from the forests due to expansion of Mikania	Governance institutions 	No data	"Forest management committees have been spending a portion of their annual income toward the management of Mikania which is otherwise spent for infrastructure development, social services, etc"	No data	"gcmembers in each case are making Mikania management decisions without consulting their governance committees or other actors, limiting the information available regarding the best ways to successfully remove Mikaniah  gCollective efforts to manage invasive species [Mikania] exist in each of the community forests, but to differing degrees. The income of the community forests affects their governance capacity; this amount differs substantially based upon political connections, as well as differing resources and income streams. The buffer zone community forests registered with the national park receive annual funds distributed through the buffer zone committee to individual governance committees; the total amount of money available is impacted by political conditions, which have dramatically changed in recent years. Some governance committees supplement this income with tourist entry fees or selling resources like gravel, but their ability to engage in such activities is limited by the condition of the forest and their available resources, resulting in differential income opportunity, and thus governance capacity, across community forests.h
"	"gThe income of the community forests affects their governance capacity [to manage Mikania]; this amount differs substantially based upon political connections, as well as differing resources and income streams. The buffer zone community forests registered with the national park receive annual funds distributed through the buffer zone committee to individual governance committees; the total amount of money available is impacted by political conditions, which have dramatically changed in recent years. Some governance committees supplement this income with tourist entry fees or selling resources like gravel, but their ability to engage in such activities is limited by the condition of the forest and their available resources, resulting in differential income opportunity, and thus governance capacity, across community forests.h  gIn particular, communities with ties to NGO B had increased access to information about best practices for Mikania management and the management activities in which other communities had engaged. Communities that did not interact with these external organizations, either because they were too far from them or they did not trust them, lacked this information.h "	"gIn particular, communities with ties to NGO B had increased access to information about best practices for Mikania management and the management activities in which other communities had engaged. Communities that did not interact with these external organizations, either because they were too far from them or they did not trust them, lacked this information.h "	"gThus, to manage Mikania, community forest members need to bolster bottom up collective action. While current district and national level government actors lack resources to significantly aid Mikania management, a combination of bottom up collective action and improved community relationships with actors such as the national park or district forest office could increase the success of bottom up management efforts. Improving the frequency and quality of relationships between community members, NGOs, and government actors is demanding in practiceccc.. In the context of Chitwan, overcoming distrust could begin with an effort from the national park and NGOs to increase the accessibility of their information and servicesh "	"gInterviewees discussed its impact on the time it took to collect grasses, as well as an increase in the distance ventured into the forest to collect grasses not engulfed by Mikania.h "	Community members involved in the harvest of fodder from forest believes that the amount of fodder available in the forest declined due to expansion of Mikania.  	No data	No data	Inhabitants of Chitwan National Park buffer zone																																																																													
MM.7	"Patricia Howard, LA Chpt. 6"	19-Aug-21	"Sundaram et al. 2012. Ecology and impacts of the invasive species, Lantana camara, in a social-ecological system in South India: perspectives from local knowledge"	"Soliga tribals (literally, 'people of the bamboo') - lived in the area for at least 100s of years. Biligiri Rangaswamy Temple Wildlife Sanctuary (hereafter BRT), Western Ghats mountain range in Karnataka State, India."	"47 male Soliga NTFP collectors from across 17 communities across the BRT (not possible to interview women). Interview schedules where interaction is informal, conversational, and flexible. Ecological data - long-term change in basal area of lantana and native trees"	Lantana camara	Spread	"First reported in BRT in 1934 - maybe introduced into coffee plantataions. rapid spread began in the 1970s, continued over past 15 years, 50% of respondents (mostly older) said spread began 30 years ago from the forest interior"	"Natural drivers, IAS"	"Natural/IAS: occurrence of forest fires that created an empty understorey - fire resistant, so encouraged by fire which would be encouraged by Lantana in a feedback loop; High density of Lantana seeds vis a vis native seeds encourage Lantana success"	"Politics, governance and institutions, Socio-cultural, Demographic , Politics, governance and institutions, Socio-cultural"	"Politics: Wildlife sanctuary declared in 1973; shifting cultivation, hunting, and use of fire were banned. Usufruct rights for NTFP collection have been restricted and then liberalised over this period. Socio-cultural: Soliga forced to sedentarise and take up agriculture; still gain income from NTFP collection and sales. Socio-cultural: No-fire rule couldn't be enforced; Soliga burn to collect NTFPs ""or sometimes as acts of retaliation against restrictive state policies'.."	No data	"Soliga believe forest's species composition has degraded, density of common tree species had drastically reduced - ecologically - some have reduced and others are maintained; Soliga report negative impacts for herbivores as Lantana is unpalatable, leading to poor health and crop raiding."	No data 	"1) Dense growth impedes collection of NTFPs, fuelwood; 2) reduced visibility so encounters with dangerous animals has increased; 3) can't search for edible tubers due to Lantana growth; 4) leading to increased crop raiding by herbivores since food supply has reduced; 5) density of important NTFPs has reduced with spread [field data show that ""numbers of all NTFP species, with the exception of Terminalia bellerica, had decreased between 1997 and 2008"""	Older Soliga used fire to manage forest health and credit it with prevention of Lantana spread (understorey was dominated by grasses and bamboo). Younger Soliga say fire would encourage Lantana spread. Both. Young and old say return to fire regimes would not be possible because Lantana is too dense and fires would burn canopies as well as undergrowth.	No data	"[Effects of fire are likely related to the phase of the invasion ? arrival, establishment, and spread] (Sundaram et al. 2012, 939). Information on the link between forest fires and lantana invasion has been enriched by Soliga knowledge, and could potentially challenge existing views of fire prevention ?views held by biologists and managers alike."	"Remove Lantana and restore forest health and NTFPs, reduce dangers"	No data	No data	No data	No data	NTFP reduction; loss of crops due to animal raids.	"Safety and security, Material and immaterial assets"	No data 	Safety and security: increased danger of wild animal attacks as visibility in forest reduced; Assets: reduced access to NTFPs; reduced availability of NTFPs for food and income; loss of crops due to animal crop raiding	No data	No data	No data 	People continued to burn forests to facilitate their collection of forest products or sometimes as acts of retaliation against restrictive state policies 	Most farmers suggest that outside agencies should hire a GAS specialist to work with them to develop a practical control strategy.	"In 1989, the Philippine ministries and IRRI introduced untested nonchemical control methods c Farmers want  that agencies establish a network to facilitate promition and transfer of technology to local farmers through print, mass media, or farmer training; loans for the purchase of rice seedlings; and a program for mass production and dispersal of ducks. They want alternative uses of GAS, such as the establishment of feed mills that would use GAS as raw material, or the development of new palatable recipes."	"Farmers want basic information on GAS, such as how to identify males and females. Otherwise knowledge is based on ILK. Most farmers have good knowledge of GAS reproduction, maturation, habitats, and active periods. Most failed to estimate density by size, sex, and color...and because of high numbers, failed to count them. "	"Specific technologies to manage GAS are needed taking into account indigenous technology and farmersf knowledge, rather than making blanket recommendations which lowland farmers now use for GAS management. This is possible through the farmer-scientist participatory research, extension and training approach. The existing National IPM program of the Department of Agriculture could further strengthen this approach to promote other uses of GAS through the farmersf field school. A special topic for the IRT farmers, how to manage the GAS, should be included in the IPM Farmer Field School curriculum. It is also important that more farmers and trainers be trained on IPM of GAS through the National IPM program. More research on GAS population ecology is needed."	"Harmful, but can serve as a resource ? e.g. controlling weeds at a certain stage of rice maturity, feed for ducks and humans."	"Cause yield loss of 5-50% if not controlled. Farmersf descriptions of the GAS injury symptoms usually corresponded with those observed by scientists. The most common form of injury (81.9%) was that rice seedlings were either bent, cut, tumbled or eaten completely. Almost an equal number (9.70%) of farmers observed that GAS ate germinated rice seeds and injured the rice leaves.  GAS consumed azolla, taro, and weeds, aside from rice, in the rice terraces. Injury to rice seems to be a much greater concern as only few (2.91%) farmers observed rice plant death once eaten by GAS. Farmers remarked that GAS ate any green plant. Only 3.39% of the respondents did not know that GAS injure the rice plant "	"Farmers are generally aware of GAS injury to their rice crop, but they do not necessarily understand/ differentiate other similar causal agents unless they saw GAS in the field. Farmers mentioned that the degree of soil saturation is directly related to GAS activity. Ninety-six farmers said flooded conditions are most favorable, followed by moist soil and moving water, and least in dry soil. Again, farmers in all municipalities pointed out that GAS populations increased in flooded conditions either caused by rains or irrigation. Farmers in Banaue said that the other factors that contributed to the increase of GAS population were as follows: after egg clusters hatch, after transplanting, and during land preparation/stubble cleaning/after cleaning. The most limiting factor was the absence of rain or during summer season. Other factors pointed by Banaue farmers were: fallow periods made them hibernate, after egg deposition, after land preparation, during harvest/maximum tillering. ON INTRODUCTIONS: SEE INDIRECT DRIVERS"	No data	"Soliga tribals, BRT sanctuary, Western Ghats, Karnataka State"																																																																													
	"Peter Stoett, Co-chair"	10/07/2021	"Taitingfong, R.I. (2019). Islands as Laboratories: Indigenous Knowledge and Gene Drives in the Pacific.?Human Biology?91(3), 179-188.?https://www.muse.jhu.edu/article/757041."	"Various Pacific islands, historic (history of lack of consultation, nuclear weapons testing) and contemporary (prospects of gene editing)"	No data	some discussion of rodents that have invaded Pacific islands	Establishment	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	"Paper is on use of gene drives as management, eradciation and prevention"	use of population suppression gene drives in the future	IPLC consultation and consent will be vital moving forward with theis technology	"use of islands as testing grounds for gene drive tech, though other reasons would be manifest"	Changes in wild resource systems	The issue here is that there are so few studies of this tech in actual living biomes. Unkniown what impact might be on island ecosystems	No data	" investment from biotech companies, philanthropic foundations, governments."	No data	Non-categorised	unkown; presumably suppression IAS populations would reduce harm they cause	unknown; if release of gene driven organisms has deleterious impact on ecology then it could harm at many levels	Not yet assigned	unknown; tech could be benificial if successful	"unlown, article does not outline specific threats"	possible between advocates and those opposed to gene driven tech	"Suggested priorities and recommendations are provided for the Ethical Engagement of Indigenous Communities in Gene Drive Research and Development A) Center indigenous self-determination:
 i. Conduct field trials and open releases of organisms with gene drive only when authorized by indigenous community partners. 
ii. Recognize that consent is not a guaranteed outcome of partnership (and pursue collaborative partnerships with local indigenous communities regardless). 

B) Replace the deficit model of engagement with a participatory approach: 
i. Do not conflate unidirectional educational efforts (e.g., science communication) with participatory community engagement. 
ii. Pursue participatory approaches to community engagement (e.g., collaboration, mutual learning, community expertise). 
iii. Model participatory practices after other indigenous-led research. 

C) Integrate indigenous knowledge and values: 
i. Identify culturally specific values and concepts relevant to gene drive research and risk assessment. 
ii. Draw on culturally specific values and knowledge to codesign questions in continued research and decision making related to gene drive. 
"	"gthe very framing of islands as isolated, small, and remote is incommensurate with indigenous Pacific Islandersf views of their island homesh p182"	No data	"not covered except in passing (i.e., the article is about future prospects)"	No data	No data	No data	No data	Indigenous Pacific islanders																																																																													
	"Patricia Howard, LA Chpt. 6"	2021/7/10	Tassin et al. 2012. Hybrid improved tree fallows: harnessing invasive woody legumes for agroforestry 	"Swidden farmers, agroforesters - summary of previous studies carried out by the author; Reunion, highland Madagascar, the Bateke plateau in Congo, and the Palni hills of southern India."	"Swidden farmers, agrofoesters. No data ? primary data from previous studies done by the authors."	Australian Acacia spp. - wattles. popular forestry and agroforestry species.	No data	"Colonial officials in Madagascar distributed Acacia dealbata seeds to highland farmers to encourage afforestation of grassland areas and supply fuel for the countryfs railway. Acacia mearnsii was widely planted by farmers on the mountain slopes of Reunion in order to provide fuel for essential oil distilleries. by the Indian governmentfs Forest Service in massive forestry plantations in the Nilgiri and Palni hills, to supply tannins for leather-processing industriesc In several cases, they have been promoted specifically for improved fallowschave been present for half a century or more in all case study sites other than the Bateke plateau, and thus have significantly large seed banks stored in the landscape and in fieldsc"	IAS	"IAS: Invasion occurs at  landscape level, resulting in seed accumulation over much of the terrain. The viability of Australian acacias as ehybrid improversf depends on their individual biological traits and behaviour in introduced landscapes. If natural processes are insufficient for good regeneration, farmers create conditions for fallow invasion by woody legumes. "	"Politics, governance and institutions, Science, technology, and knowledge"	"Politics: Agricultural development projects have introduced Australian acacias to supplyfodder,  fuelwood and industrial inputs, and to farming systems, via improved fallows, to enhance soil fertility. Socio-cultural:  Invasiveness forces farmers to benefit from invasion while keeping it from becoming a weed and competing with crops or increasing labour demands. Desire for fallow products leads farmers to create 'hybrid' 'improved' fallows - 'hybrid' as they are partly natural and partly managed; 'improved' as they are managed to yield greater benefits compared with natural fallows. Market-oriented and profitable. Technology: The aim of improved agroforestry fallows is to speed up fallows - the process of  soil enrichment - through Acacia's  nitrogen-fixing qualities and to provide additional resources that are useful to farmers."	No data	No data	"The comparative advantage of hybrid improved fallows, particularly for small farmers with limited capital, lies in its low input and labour costs for establishment and management, the generation of cash income from the invasive plant, multipurpose use, and relatively short time for land to be returned to crop cultivation. Acacia wood used for charcoal, fencing and roof poles, the bark used in leather tanning and for medicine, the leaf litter made into compostable fertilizer, and the gum used as artisanal glue or sometimes in local foods"	"Potential harm turned to benefit. Acacias may create conditions where the plants become eweedyf by competing with cultivated crops or by making cultivation more laborious, thereby cancelling the benefit of low labour and opportunity costs [doesnft happen in the case studies presented]. "	"Don't prevent, encourage."	"The creation, use, and management of hybrid improved fallows can be understood as: preparation for einvasionf, managing growth, and harvesting einvasivef plants and other products from the fallow before it is returned to cultivation of other crops. First phase is the creation?usually unintentional?of the right conditions for fallow invasion by woody legumes a widespread, abundant seed bank. If natural processes are insufficient for good regeneration, farmers create conditions for fallow invasion by woody legumes. Second phase - management of  growth of invasive woody legumes in the fallows - usually by thinning at intervals to e.g. provide larger trees for charcoal or poles. Third phase - use and harvest of fallow vegetation before preparing for cultivation - e.g. grazing, plant and insect collection. Grazing keeps vegetation under check and fertilises soil.  "	No constraints mentioned; system very effective at managing invasive to turn harm to benefit. . A multitude of valuable products are obtained from Acacia improved fallow	"Manage Acacia (e.g. thinning, grazing) to obtain maximum output of desirable products"	"Manage invasive species as a resource , Utilisation of invasive species, Changes in cropping systems, Changes in livestock systems, Changes in wild resource systems, Changes in tree / forest systems"	"Manage species as a resource: hybrid fallows created by farmers increases biodiversity - a multitude of desired species is produced in acacia dominated fallows. IAS Use: The most significant assets in the fallowed area are the acacias themselves. Cropping systems: creation of 'hybrid' acacia dominated fallows, which provide greater soil fertility and a multitude of products; fallow time is shortened considerably. Livestock: grazed in fallows to control vegetation, consume pods, provide greater soil fertility.  Wild resources: provided by hybrid fallows dominated by acacia spp. Forest/trees: Improved tree fallows represent move into agroforestry. High demand for multitude of tree species in Acacia dominated fallows; apparently greater market demand, including industrial; Apparently greater commercial use of trees; supplies of forest products increases."	Labour requirements for reestablishing fallows are minimal as Acacia germinates or resprouts easily. Labour investment or costs involved in managing the fallow is minimal and is often part of the activity involved in harvesting the products for sale. Management labour is minimal except for commercially valuable products. Labour investments or costs are compensated by cash income earned from high levels of sales	Financial outlays are low.	"Congo: 12 year fallow produces some 24 tons of charcoal/ha; combined income from charcoal production, honey collection,  maize and cassava cultivation on a 25 ha farm may reach US$ 4000/year. Reunion: fuelwood is harvested and sold every 3 months for commercial oil distillation.  Madagascar: fuelwood, charcoal sold daily in towns and cities. India: A.  mearnsii fallows are a savings account; trees harvested in bulk at the end of the fallow cycle to pay major expenses. All cases: shortened fallow cycle: Depending on the ecological conditions and capital constraints, farmers may seek to shorten their fallow cycles through distinctive crop fallow rotations. "	Material and immaterial assets	"Enterprises such as charcoal production bring substantial additional income. In Congo a 12-year fallow produces about 24 tons of charcoal/ha, In Reunion fuelwood is harvested and sold every 3 mos; in Madagasgar charcoal is sold daily. In India fallows are a savings account; trees are harvested in bulk at the end of the fallow cycle to pay major expenses."	No data	No data	Farmers gained experience and practical knowledge of how trees fit within ecological and agricultural systems and manage Acacia's invasive tendencies to their advantage.	No data 	No data	"Could not use fire even if it were permitted, as would be counter-productive."	People continued to burn forests to facilitate their collection of forest products or sometimes as acts of retaliation against restrictive state policies 	"The Soligasf historical association with the BRT forest has no doubt helped them develop an adaptive theory of lantana invasion, based on knowledge they have accumulated of its natural history, the mechanisms of its success, and its ecological impacts on native plant and animal communities. However, respondent age plays an important role "	"Progressive legislation in India, such as the recent Forest Rights Act (2006) recognizes comanagement as a viable management alternative in peopled ecosystems, and may provide a legal framework for evolving adaptive management systems for lantana-invaded forests...Participatory and inter-disciplinary research involving indigenous people, scientists and park managers has been recognized as a priority for achieving biodiversity conservation and livelihood protection in human-dominated landscapes. In this instance, a logical next step would be further empirical investigation of hypotheses arising out of Soliga local knowledge. The growing body of research on Soliga knowledge of several aspects of BRT as a landscape could technically lead to the formulation of adaptive management approaches that address the restoration of the lantana-invaded landscape "	Clearly a negative view of Lantana	"1) Dense growth impedes collection of NTFPs, fuelwood; 2) reduced visibility so encounters with dangerous animals has increased; 3) can't search for edible tubers due to Lantana growth; 4) leading to increased crop raiding by herbivores since food supply has reduced; 5) density of important NTFPs has reduced with spread [field data show that ""numbers of all NTFP species, with the exception of Terminalia bellerica, had decreased between 1997 and 2008"""	"The Soliga largely attributed the rapid spread of lantana in BRT to four factors: 1) ?	Lantanafs prolific fruit production and wide dispersal by birds and mammals. Copious fruiting provides food that is easy for these animals to gather, with lantana gaining dispersal advantages; 2) ?	The change in fire regimes in BRT. 50% believed that it spread due to the decrease in fire frequency, which occurred due to fire prevention measures. 40% believed that lantana was benefitted by an increase in fire frequency - it resprouts readily in response to fire, dense lantana leads to the intense fires, and native species are killed, leading to a decrease in the abundance of native species over time; 3) ?	96% believe that early-dry season forest fires traditionally set prior to 1973 were important to maintain what they called the ehealthf of the forest ? did not harm native saplings, and ash was a good fertilizer for native species;  4) ?	51% cited historical over-extraction of grass and bamboo resources, a practice common prior to 1973. Empty spaces left behind were occupied by lantana, bamboo seedlings were shaded out, resulting in the gradual reduction of bamboo over time. Grass regeneration was also negatively affected. 38% of respondents did not believe bamboo and grass extraction was a driver; ALSO ?	Lantana limits native speciesf seed germination and reduces seedling survival"	No data	Swidden farmers																																																																													
	"Ankila Hiremath, LA, Ch. 4"	30/06/2019 AH	"Thorn 2019. Adaptation gfrom belowh to changes in species distribution, habitat and climate in agro-ecosystems in the Terai Plains of Nepal"	Farming communities; Terai region of Nepal; 2012-2014.	"About 100 interviewees from the communities; key informants representing a range of sectors, institution types and scales of operation. Ecological surveys, household surveys, and key informant interviews
"	Lantana camara; Ageratina adenophora. 	Spread	"gMost farmers (93%) highlighted a proliferation of invasive species and weeds in the last 10 years, particularly in hotter, more humid conditions.""(Thorn 2019, p. 1488) "	Land-use and Sea-use change	"Between 1950-1986, 0.1 million ha of forests converted to agriculture, leading to a loss of biodiversity, and cultural knowledge. Climate change: Respondents also highlighted observed changes in climate over the past 10 years. "	Demographic 	"gSimultaneously, the cultural?demographic profile of the population substantially shifted from small pockets of Tharu (the original indigenous tribal population, and the largest ethnic minority in Nepal comprising over 2000 subdivisions), to a mixture with Brahmin, Chettri, Indian migrants, and other castes (Guneratne 2002).h (Thorn 2019, p. 1483)"	No data	No data	No data	"Weeds compete with crops for nutrients, water, sunlight. "	No data	"gTo control invasive species, farmers primarily mechanically remove weeds, control fires, and mulch. Alternatively, they plant stale seedbeds, with narrow planting spaces between seedlings and flood-transplanted rice. Hand-held hoe and pulling were traditionally applied, but this is declining as it is considered labor intensive.h (Thorn 2019, p. 1492)
"	Mechanical control is declining because it is labour intensive. 	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	"Paper talks of farmers 'adapting from below' to changes in climate, biodiversity, weeds, but does not provide details of decision making (or how effective these adaptations have been at reversing detrimental changes.)"	"""Community-led institutions, such as CFUGs, WUA, and FFS, bring together groups to make rapid decisions to respond to change, manage or pool communal resources, build leadership, facilitate interaction, and demonstrate practices (Guneratne 2002). External agencies use these entities to channel resources, monitor ecological change, consult, or provide training and follow on support."" .h (Thorn 2019, p. 1493-1494). The government has formulated policies in keeping with international priorities on biodiversity and climate change, but at the local level policy implementation has not been as effective. "	No data	"Study makes several recommendations regarding agricultural extension, improving agroecological practices, and putting in place action research and monitoring to assess adaptations to climate change and biodiversity loss."	No data	Perceived as competing with crops for essential resources.	"Attribute the spread of weeds to monoculture cropping, land clearing for agriculture, and the use of farmyard manure (that helps disperse weed seeds). "	No data	Teri farming communities																																																																													
MM.3	"Bharat B Shrestha, LA Ch. 6"	13/7/2021	"Thornton, et al. 2019. Human adaptation to biodiversity change: An adaptation process approach applied to a case study from southern India. Ambio 48. Human Adaptation to Biodiversity Change in the Anthropocene: 1431?1446. doi:10.1007/s13280-019-01225-7."	"Lingayat and Soliga communities; Village of Kombudikki and surrounding communities in the Male Mahadeshwara Hills (MM Hills) Wildlife Sanctuary, Karnataka, southern India; [Time of data collection not mentioned]"	"Local residents and officials stationed in the Male Mahadeshwara Hills region. gc. historical-ecological records combined with field and household surveys, participant observation, and semi-structured and casual interviews to begin to understand the trajectory of the Lantana invasion, its effects, and how people respond and adapt to its impacts on their forest and field ecosystemsh. "	Lantana camara 	Spread	"gAdults can remember a time when Lantana was enot so badf or prevalent only in certain dry, deciduous regions on the forest edge, but now it is said by many to be eeverywhere,f meaning in virtually every ecozone they inhabit. More nuanced assessments were given by cattle herders, who were aware of places where the plantfs spread had slowed, stopped, or even been reversed, but these were typically small microhabitats within the forest supporting deep canopy cover, or where Lantana competes with plantsc.h "	No data	No data	No data	No data.	"gWith its [Lantanafs] abundant fruits, it contributes to feeding birds and other forest animals, such as sloth bears.h "	"A range of negative impacts of Lantana on natural ecosystems were reported by the informants decrease in species richness of native species, reduced regeneration of native species, reduced pollination to native species, and altered fire regime."	"gFarmers enhance the fertility of their soils by burning weeded Lantana and applying the ash to fields before planting. It is also recognised for its beautiful and aromatic flowers, its value (both alive and dead) as excellent fencing material, and its potential use in manufactureh   Lantana furniture production can potentially fill livelihood gaps in between quarrying and cropping, thus reducing vulnerability and maintaining forest livelihood resilience and values.h "	"A range of negative impacts of Lantana on IPLC were reported by the informants that include loss of pasture land, increased cost in agriculture, and toxicity to human and livestock. gThe negative effects of Lantana on biodiversity and ecosystem processes affect the value of key assets within the livelisystem. For example, soap nutfs value in the subsistence portfolio, as a commercialised NTFP, may increase as a result of its ability to maintain its abundance for harvesters despite Lantanafs invasion. On the other hand, commercialised NTFPs such as bamboo (specifically Dendrocalamus strictus L. which is woven into baskets, mostly for sale) and broomstick (Phoenix sylvestris Roxb. which is sold for broom manufacture) may be devalued as resources as they become too costly to collect or transform into products (e.g., bamboo baskets for sale) as Lantana reduces their abundance, quality, or ease of harvest. Similarly, the labour required to tend cattle increases with the decline and fragmentation of fodder resources and reduced access to the forest due to Lantanafs thick spread, making it costly for households to maintain significant numbers of cattle as assets, c..h gIn the case of Lantana in the MM Hills, the loss of fodder and other highly valued NTFPs has catalysed increasing dependency on the state food distribution system, as well as increased market dependence (agricultural commodities and migratory wage labour) and, thus, entails greater vulnerability to their fluctuations.h "	No data	Manual removal from road and forest trail edges by locals with incentive from government agencies.	No data	No data	"Utilisation of invasive species, Changes in livestock systems, Changes in wild resource systems"	"Utilization of invasive species: Use of Lantana to enrich soil by nutrients (burning biomass of Lantana in farmland before cropping), as fencing materials, and for manufacturing basket, furniture, etc. 
Change in livestock systems: gc the labour required to tend cattle increases with the decline and fragmentation of fodder resources and reduced access to the forest due to Lantanafs thick spread, making it costly for households to maintain significant numbers of cattle as assetsc.h  gHerders we spoke to in Kombudikki often seemed fatalistic about biodiversity change, predicting that, with Lantanafs continued spread, there would soon ebe no more fodderf for cattle in their traditional grazing areas. They would either have to migrate elsewhere with their herds, purchase fodder or pay others to graze animals, or give up forest grazing altogether.h  Change in wild resources system: gsoap nutfs value in the subsistence portfolio, as a commercialised NTFP, may increase as a result of its ability to maintain its abundance for harvesters despite Lantanafs invasion. On the other hand, commercialised NTFPs such as bamboo (specifically Dendrocalamus strictus L. which is woven into baskets, mostly for sale) and broomstick (Phoenix sylvestris Roxb. which is sold for broom manufacture) may be devalued as resources as they become too costly to collect or transform into products (e.g., bamboo baskets for sale) as Lantana reduces their abundance, quality, or ease of harvesth"	"gc..the labour required to tend cattle increases with the decline and fragmentation of fodder resources and reduced access to the forest due to Lantanafs thick spread, making it costly for households to maintain significant numbers of cattle as assetsh  There was increased reliance on wage labor and public distribution as an effort to diversity livelihood options.  "	No data	"gReduced livestock and fodder; Increased sedentism/migration for other work, reliance on agriculture, public distribution system; Increased mobility/access costs to find suitable grazing fodder, increased danger of accidentsh  gReduced exchange of forest products; increased exchange of Lantana products; Pasture for livestock services (traction or manure) or for pasturing cattle on fallow fields; Selling off of livestockh gPooling of herds and labour for grazing (including outsourcing care to herders elsewhere); Pooling of livestock and labour assets for agriculture services to cope with absent wage labour forceh In the case of Lantana in the MM Hills, the loss of fodder and other highly valued NTFPs has catalysed increasing dependency on the state food distribution system, as well as increased market dependence (agricultural commodities and migratory wage labour) and, thus, entails greater vulnerability to their fluctuations.h "	Material and immaterial assets	"Diversification of livelihood options through utilization of Lantana stem for manufacturing basket, furniture, etc"	"Material and immaterial assets: Number of cattle reduced due to decline in forage supply in pasture as a result of expansion of Lantana. Farmers, who also own cattle, are affected from the expansion of Lantana. "	"Social security, Education/knowledge"	No data	"Social security: gIn the case of Lantana in the MM Hills, the loss of fodder and other highly valued NTFPs has catalysed increasing dependency on the state food distribution system, as well as increased market dependence (agricultural commodities and migratory wage labour) and, thus, entails greater vulnerability to their fluctuationsh Education/knowledge: gCircumscribed use of a changing forest, in turn, may reduce the detailed, continuously updated landscape and ecosystem knowledge-building that comes with more regular engagement with the forest. Ultimately (and evidence for this is already emerging), for some segments of the population, alienation from the forest may lead to a gradual reconceptualization of forest environment itself: in the case of Lantana, from a landscape of productivity to one of contamination (of productive resources by foreign invaders or spiritual forces) and fear (of unseen dangerous wildlife, etc.).h "	No data	No data	No data	"gIn addition to peoplefs own negative experiences with Lantanafs effects on their livelihoods and landscapes, NGOsf negative attitudes toward einvasivesf may also contribute to localsf adverse orientation towards the plant.h "	"gLantanafs presence may create new opportunities for revitalising livelisystems. For example, Lantana c.. is potentially useful hedge plant that can protect crops from free-ranging cattle and wild animals, so long as its spread can be controlled.h Lantana can also be used as hedge plants in hill slopes to control soil erosion. gLantanafs luxurious growth and production of woody stems can be exploited for charcoal-making, producing biogas and bio-ethanol, and making paper, baskets, and garden furnitureh "	"gDespite being labeled locally as jedi gida (euseless plantf), local residents identified several positive ecosystem values associated with Lantanah   gIn most MM Hills communities, Lantana continues to be conceptualised as a relatively low value asset, although people do engage in government-paid labour to remove Lantana from road and forest trail edges. A strong positive or even neutral value orientation towards the invasive plant has yet to evolve in most segments of the population, including among those who are actively exploiting it as part of their livelihood portfolios. Anewala, among the most productive Lantana manufacturing villages in the MM Hills, may present an exception?yet, even in this community, the uptake of small-scale production of Lantana furniture and other goods appears to be limited to a few industrious families, and the communityfs orientation toward the plant could hardly be characterized as positiveh "	"gHerders we spoke to in Kombudikki often seemed fatalistic about biodiversity change, predicting that, with Lantanafs continued spread, there would soon ebe no more fodderf for cattle in their traditional grazing areas. They would either have to migrate elsewhere with their herds, purchase fodder or pay others to graze animals, or give up forest grazing altogether.h "	No data	No data	"Soliga, Lingayat tribals, MMH, Karnataka state"																																																																													
AP.4	"Elena Tricarico, LA Chpt. 2"	2021/7/12	Tilauhn et al. (2017) Household-level preferences for mitigation of Prosopis juliflora invasion in the Afar region of Ethiopia: a contingent valuation 	"Afarfs pastoral and agro-pastoral rural communities, Ethiopia"	Contingent valuation survey on  490 rural households of Afarfs pastoral and agro-pastoral rural communities	"Woody shrub or small tree Prosopis juliflora. ""P. juliflora was first introduced to Ethiopia in the late 1970s and early 1980s in a very small number of agricultural research stations for use as a biological structure for soil and water conservation. Now, the species has become a major threat to pastoral livelihoods and biodiversity in the region."" (Tilauhn et al. 2017)"	Spread	"gP. juliflora has a belligerent invasive nature, infesting pastureland, irrigated cultivated lands and irrigation canals causing irreversible displacement of natural pasture grasses as well as native tree species (Kassahun, Yohannes, and Olani 2004). The livelihood of rural communities in the Afar region of Ethiopia is being threatened by this invasive speciesh.  (Tilauhn et al. 2017)"	Land-use and Sea-use change	"The species was introduced for soil and water conservation. The species invades natural and pastural habitats, leading to the loss of biodiversity, to a decrease in livestock and crop production and productivity, to the abandonment of invaded areas and migration to new ones with possible conflicts among communities. "	"Economic, Demographic "	"Economic: some households can have an income selling the products of P. juliflora, and thus are less prone to control it.
Demographic: households living in highly invaded areas can look for new areas for their livestock, thus not managing the invaded areas."	No data	"The species is gcausing irreversible displacement of natural pasture grasses as well as native tree species (Kassahun, Yohannes, and Olani 2004).. Its negative effects include invading the habitat of beneficial native species..h  (Tilauhn et al. 2017)"	"gFor some households,cP. juliflora may have created benefits, and controlling or eradicating it may reduce their welfare. This may be the case for households who might be generating income from selling P. juliflora-based fuel and charcoal productionh.  (Tilauhn et al. 2017)"	"The species is ginfesting pastureland, irrigated cultivated lands and irrigation canalscThe livelihood of rural communities in the Afar region of Ethiopia is being threatened by this invasive species. Its negative effects include ..encroaching onto paths used by people and livestock to reach watering points, villages, homes, crop- and pastureland; and causing injury from thorns, impacting on animal and human health, even apparently resulting in some human fatalities (Mwangi and Swallow 2008; Maundu et al. 2009)h.  The species can lead to a decrease in livestock and crop production and productivity, to the abandonment of invaded areas and migration to new ones with possible conflicts among communities."	No data	"In the introduction, it is just reported that gManagement of invasive species can be undertaken with the application of mechanical, chemical, and biological control methodsh. (Tilauhn et al. 2017)
gIn the case of choice of mitigation options, the majority of the respondents (84.08%) were in favour of the complete eradication of P. juliflora from their village, whereas only 15.92% were in favour of controlling further expansion of P. juliflora through productive use. In terms of choice of mitigation technologies, the majority (70.41%) of the respondents preferred mechanical removal of the tree by burning the root system, whereas 17.96% preferred the application of chemical controls.h (Tilauhn et al. 2017)"	"g87.76% reported that the requirement for participation by a minimum number of volunteers would increase their interest in contributing to the intervention for mitigating P. juliflora invasion in their villagech and g56.24% of respondents reported that a governmentfs guarantee to refund contributions in the case of insufficient volunteers would discourage participationh. (Tilauhn et al. 2017). The results of the survey underlines that gthe higher the level of invasion by P. juliflora on government land, the less likely the household is willing to pay higher bids in terms of cash, as well as labor, for mitigating the invasion. This might be because households have no incentive to contribute to either eradicating or controlling the expansion of P. juliflora on government land..h and that galthough rural households have the willingness to contribute to a campaign against P. juliflora invasion, their contribution will be insufficient compared to the extent of invasion and the resources required for mitigation. Therefore, there is a need for the involvement of all stakeholders in controlling this invasive species, which is threatening pastoral livelihoods in the region.h (Tilauhn et al. 2017)"	To maintain livestock and crop production.	"Utilisation of invasive species, Changes in livestock systems, Changes in cropping systems"	"Managing invasive species as a resource. Some are in favour to control the species through its productivity. 
Changes in livestock systems: in some highly invaded areas, households cannot maintain this activity and must migrate to find new suitable areas for it.
Changes in cropping systems: in highly invaded areas, crop production is reduced, and farmers need to clear these areas from P. juliflora to maintain the activity."	"Invaded crop areas need to be cleared by P. juliflora and [this can change labour oganisation]. Due to highly invaded livestock areas, people can need to migrate [change in travel time]."	"gcthe likelihood of accepting higher bids (in cash and labor contributions) is higher for pastoral households than for non-pastoral households (which include agro-pastoralists, crop-farmers, traders, and civil servants)h. Moreover, gInvasion into crop fields reduces crop productivity,
implies costs for clearingh (Tilauhn et al. 2017) "	"gInvasion onto grazing areas and associated loss of grazing territories, which results in shortage of
animal feed, decreasing livestock production and productivity, migration to new areas in search of
new grazing areas. Invasion into crop fields reduces crop productivity (Mwangi and Swallow 2008)h. (Tilauhn et al. 2017)"	Material and immaterial assets	Some people sell products originated from the species.	"The crop and livestock production is affected, wetland areas are less accessible. "	"Settlement / land use, Social security"	No data	"Some households migrate to find new areas suitable for livestock, so they abandon the former used areas. "	Conflicts can arise among communities for grazing areas.	"g..the majority of the respondents (84.08%) were in favour of the complete eradication of P. juliflora from their village, whereas only 15.92% were in favour of controlling further expansion of P. juliflora through productive use. In terms of choice of mitigation technologies, the majority (70.41%) of the respondents preferred mechanical removal of the tree by burning the root system..h. (Tilauhn et al. 2017)"	Government should help in managing the species. All the stakeholders should be involved in such activity. Conflicts can arise among communities for grazing areas. 	The majority of respondent were able to learn more about use and negative impacts of P. juliflora during the interview	"The authors conclude that gThe pastoral and agro-pastoral communities should be provided with full information on the negative effects, as well as beneficial uses, of the species; The mobilization of the contributions should be on a voluntary basis; There should be a strong and sustainable institution that can raise awareness, mobilize communities, and design appropriate management plansh. (Tilauhn et al. 2017)"	"No data, [but households seem to know that P. juliflora is an IAS]."	"Crop and livestock production and productivity are considered as well as the accessibility of some areas (e.g. wetlands, paths)."	No data	Wood and wood products from P. juliflora are used by some households.	"Afar pastoralists, Awash basin "																																																																													
	"Ankila Hiremath, LA, Ch. 4 and Zenia Ruiz-Utilla  independent consultant"	"31/8/2021, 21/09/2021 ERC merged"	Upadhyay et al. 2020. Caught off guard: folk knowledge proves deficient when addressing invasive pests in Asian cassava systems 	"Cassava farmers; rural Laos, Vietnam; 2014-2015. In Laos the study was realized in the provinces Salavan and Champasak. In Vietnam, the study was carried out in the provinces Phu Tho, Tay Ninh and Phu Yen."	"Informants: The informants were farmers. gAt least 25 farming households in either province were randomly selectedh (Upadhyay et al., 2020, 429). Methods: Household questionnaire surveys (Vietnam); semi-structured interviews (Vietnam); in-depth household interviews (Laos); focus group discussions (Laos);  participant observation (Laos)"	"Phenacoccus manihoti, the cassava mealybug, Rep sap (Local name)

Cassava witches broom (CWB), an insect-vectored disease,  Choi rong (Local name)"	"Spread, Spread, Establishment"	"gFollowing its continentwide spread in Africa in the 1980s (Neuenschwander 2001), the cassava mealybug Phenacoccus manihoti arrived in Thailand in late 2008 and has subsequently spread across SE Asia. Though CWB was initially reported from SE Asia in the 1990s, recurrent disease outbreaks have been reported over the past decade. Propagated through natural and human assisted means, both biotic threats have widely spread and are affecting large-scale, commercial production as much as traditional, low-input systems.h (Upadhyay et al. 2020, p. 427) "	"Natural drivers, Climate change"	"Climate change: gFor P. manihoti, 32% farmers correctly ascribed population build-up to climatic factorsh (Upadhyay et al., 2020, 432). Natural drivers: The paper talks about propagation ""through natural and human assisted means"" (Upadhyay et al. 2020, p. 427)"	Socio-cultural	"Socio-cultural: gFor P. manihoti, only 2% recognized that these pests could be caused by (infected) planting materialh (Upadhyay et al., 2020, 432)."	No data	No data	No data	"Reduction in crop yield of traditional low input systems: gIn Tay Ninh, where P. manihoti had invaded 2?3 years ago, 80% farmers readily mentioned the pest and voiced their concern regarding its impacts on cassava production. In other sites, only 10?24% knew about the pest.hc gFarmer knowledge of CWB differed from this pattern, though in-depth discussions revealed that CWB is regularly confused with nutritional disorders or drought stress.h  (Upadhyay et al. 2020, p. 432) 
gBoth Lao men and women considered using insecticides as P. manihoti had recently caused 30% yield drops.h (Upadhyay et al. 2020, p. 436-437) "	"A set of pest/disease prevention measures is mentioned (see Table 4, p. 435). These include: weeding; rotation with other crops; applying balanced fertilizer; ploughing or soil cultivation. However, it is not specified whether these are measures used in general for native cassava pests, or with respect to the IAS in question.  In Laos the farmers glisted multiple tactics for the disinfection of planting material (e.g., coating of stems with wood ashes), proper land preparation, or crop rotationh (Upadhyay et al., 2020, 436). The last is not clear if is it considered as preventive or control of pests. Elsewhere, it is mentioned that there is very little use of ""proper crop husbandry"" and that most farmers use curative, rather than preventive measures."	"gIn Vietnam, farmers listed a number of preventative and curative approaches for pest management (Table 4). For P. manihoti control, nearly all Tay Ninh growers either mentioned roguing and subsequent burning of infected plants or the use of insecticides. For CWB, 42% farmers recommended roguing, while 22% refrained from any management action. Even in Phu Yen, where 62% growers considered CWB a limiting disease (Table 2), the majority of farmers did not specify any management actionh gc.. relatively few growers emphasized the value of sound crop and soil management to crop protection. Though farmers recognize the importance of good-quality healthy planting material, they did not deliberately check planting material for the presence of pests or diseases.h (Upadhyay et al. 2020, p. 435)

In Laos, farmers voiced a preference for non-chemical pest control, and listed multiple tactics for the disinfection of planting material (e.g., coating of stems with wood ashes), proper land preparation, or crop rotation. This is not clear if is it considered as preventive or control of pests.Yet, during focus group discussions, both Lao men and women considered using insecticides as P. manihoti had recently caused 30% yield drops. Regarding CWB, Lao women believe that control measures are not warranted as diseased plants would gnaturally recover.h h (Upadhyay et al. 2020, p. 436-437)"	"Constraints mentioned include a) low/varying levels of agroecological knowledge, and b) inadequate finanical resources to purchase pesticides. Also gender inequity: Constraints:gIn Laos, women signaled that their household and childcare responsibilities do not permit the necessary time to attend training, which possibly could explain their lower knowledge (Christie et al. 2015). In both countries, womenfs attendance of IPM training events was shaped by their level of education, literacy, confidence, and the accessibility and location of the training venueh (Upadhyay et al., 2020, 440). On effectiveness: gInvasive pest management programs are regularly hampered by a slow, misguided or inadequate action on behalf of various stakeholders, including farmers.h (Upadhyay et al. 2020, p. 441)"	"Negative impacts on crop yield, especially due to P. manihoti. Farmers: gThis increased local awareness of mite control can be specifcially ascribed to (a) differences in local mite pest status, (b) relative importance of cassava in the local farm portfolio, (c) higher education or socioeconomic status of farmers.  (Upadhyay et al., 2020, 435)."	No data	No data	"gIn northern Vietnam (i.e., Phu Tho), women play a central role in pest/disease monitoring, selection of planting material, and overall crop managementh (Upadhyay et al., 2020, 437).
gAcross all tasks, gender roles give men less time-intensive but heavier work that requires physical strength (e.g., uprooting cassava), while women do lighter, but more repetitive work (e.g., weeding). Participant observation revealed how Lao women spend ample time in the field, assume responsibility for day-to-day crop management, and select propagation materialh (Upadhyay et al., 2020, 437)."	"More of the management strategies is derived from traditional knowledge and the inversion is not monetary. Mentioned as a constraint: 
g(Lao) men farmers ascribed their (in-)action to a lack of financial resources, specifically to purchase pesticides.h (Upadhyay et al. 2020, p. 439)

gBoth Vietnamese and Lao women attribute their deficient knowledge of crop protection to a limited access to resources, training or information.h (Upadhyay et al. 2020, p. 441)
"	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	"The Decision-making is differential between communities and gender, in general women are involved in the activities in the crop management but they participation in the take of decisions is minor than men. For example gin northern Vietnam (i.e., Phu Tho), women play a central role in pest/disease monitoring, selection of planting material, and overall crop management. Even in settings where women assume an equal (or larger) role than men in cassava crop management, they take on a relatively minor role in IPM decision-making. This differs in Tay Ninh, where women are regularly employed in off-farm activities, manage their own finances and influence (pest) management decision-making at the household levelh (Upadhyay et al., 2020, 437). 
gIn Laos, as in northern Vietnam, both men and women are engaged equally in cassava farming, yet gendered roles and responsibilities shape their participation regarding crop protectionh (Upadhyay et al., 2020, 437).
gDespite womenfs minor direct involvement in IPM decision-making, their prominent role in the selection of propagation material and backing of gnatural farmingh in Laos and northern Vietnam is noteworthyh (Upadhyay et al., 2020, 437)."	"Attendance at IPM training sessions organised by government extension agencies; information provided by suppliers of pesticides (though this  treated with suspicion/regarded as motivated). However, this information is not appear to be decisive in securing adoption of  pest management strategies since there is no difference in the technologies adopted for the invasive species control and management between training attendants from those of nontrained."	"gLao context, agricultural history and family heritage-learning affect knowledge and management practices. Although oral tradition and folklore learning can help young farmers recognize certain pests, it does not prepare them to effectively address invasive pestsh (Upadhyay et al., 2020, 440).
gCertain practices are strongly influenced by local beliefs and norms, and Lao women farmers repeatedly underscored the significance of their own knowledge as the most trusted sourceh (Upadhyay et al., 2020, 440).
Also, in both countries farmer had received pest management information from government.However, this information is not appear to be decisive in securing adoption of  pest management strategies since there is no difference in the technologies adopted for the invasive species control and management between training attendants from those of nontrained."	"Article highlights the potential for women to be trained in IPM techniques for invasive pest management, given their inclination to more ""agro-ecological approaches"" and their role in selecting planting material. Also, researchers recommend gstrengthening (men and women) farmersf agro-ecological knowledge and their understanding of concepts such as biological controlh (Upadhyay et al., 2020, 442). This campaign must be very particular for each community considering the knowledge and practices."	"gIn Vietnam, invasive pests were widely recognized by farmers, though important knowledge differences were noted between provinces. In Tay Ninh, where P. manihoti had invaded 2?3 years ago, 80% farmers readily mentioned the pest and voiced their concern regarding its impacts on cassava production. In other sites, only 10?24% knew about the pest. 

Awareness of CWB was equally spatially differentiated. e.g. gAs for CWB, 37% growers were unable to state the exact cause of this insect-vectored, systemic diseaseh (Upadhyay et al., 2020, 433).
In Laos, farmers readily identified morphological features or symptoms of several cassava phytosanitary problems. Both male and female farmers reported the presence of pests in their crops, and free-listed a total of six different pestiferous organisms, including CWB and P. manihotih (Upadhyay et al., 2020, 433).

c in-depth discussions revealed that CWB is regularly confused with nutritional disorders or drought stress.h   (Upadhyay et al. 2020, p. 432). 
"	"Farmers do not attribute the damages in their crops to the invasive species, they think that symptoms produced by these species are consequences of abiotic factors like climate change or poor-quality planting material.
In Vientnam gThe discolored leaves, severe stunting and reduced plant vigor characteristic of CWB were regularly reported as gwilting,h and thought to be a direct effect of dry weather and erratic rainfallh (Upadhyay et al., 2020, 433). 
In Laos gDuring focus group discussions, farmers attributed increasing pest problems to abiotic factors, such as dwindling soil fertility, drought or climatic variability (without considering pest invasion)h (Upadhyay et al., 2020, 433)."	"Farmers linked the build up of mealy bug and CWB to factors like poor soil quality, drought, or climate change. Some attributed pest/diesease occurrence to poor quality planting stock also, but did not link poor (infected) stock to the spread of the pest/disease."	"General notes: Even though farmers do not recognize the impacts of invasive species to their crops and generally the symptoms are attributed to another factors, the traditional knowledge and practices have been played an important role in the management of invasive species. This knowledge is differential between the communities. Also, the researchers do not find significant differences about the management of IAS between sex, but women support an agroecological approach while men have a better understanding of impacts of these species."	"Villagers, Ramnad District, Tamil Nadu"																																																																													
	"Chika Egawa, LA, Chpt. 5"	21/6/2021 CE	Vissoh et al. 2004. Weeds as agricultural constraint to farmers in Benin: results of a diagnostic study	"Farmers in 24 villages. Benin. 
June-August 2002. "	"386 farmers including 231 men and 155 women were interviewed in a group or individually. Traders, NGO representitives, leaders of farmer organizations, researchers and extension officers were also interviewed. Farmers' fields were visited."	"Weeds in crop systems: Ageratum conyzoides, Tridax procumbens, Chromolaena odorata. Native weeds mentioned in the study include Imperata cylindrica, Echinochloa pyramidalis, Striga spp, Rottboellia cochinchinensis, Leersia hexandra, Digitaria horizontalis [infomraion on native weeds were omited as much as possible]"	Spread	"Chromolaena odorata spread?: ga relatively new weed, improves soil fertility and controls other weeds.h (Vissoh et al. 2004, 318)"	Land-use and Sea-use change	"Land-use change: In Southern zone, abandonment of necessary fallow periods and the changes in agricultural practices caused weed problems."	Demographic 	"Demographic: Demographic pressure, the increasing food demand forced farmers to change agricultural practices."	Chromolaena odorata [alien in Benin] improves soil fertility and controls other weeds	No data	Farmers use Chromolaena odorata [alien in Benin] to cure malaria	Farmers mentioned weeds as an important constraint on crop production.	No data	Manual weeding. Hand weeding remains the common weed management practice used by farmers.	The main constraint on weeding in the Transition Zone is labour shortage.	To avoid damage to production system	Changes in cropping systems	"Changes in cropping systems: gfarmers give priority to weeding cotton fields and abandon part of the food crops.h (Vissoh et al. 2004, 319)"	Sixty per cent of the interviewed farmers spent on average 60% of their time on weeding. The farmers interviewed stated that they would devote more than two parts or more than 50% of their time to weeding	Farmers had to change the way they invest in labour cost	"Weeding results in severe crop yield losses. According to farmers there is a drastic drop in crop yield if the number of weedings is reduced, and total crop failure may occur if no weeding is done at all."	Freedom of choice or action	No data	"Freedom of choice or action: weeding is time consuming and costly, and thus farmers were forced to spend a lot of time and money on it. 
gAn old man of 70 years noted that a field should not be left for more than a week because by that time weeds would have re-infested it. So weeds do not give farmers any respite.h (Vissoh et al. 2004, 317)"	Settlement / land use	No data	"Settlement/land use: gsome cotton growers reduced their acreage and others have given up.h (Vissoh et al. 2004, 319)"	No data	"Farmers have insight and adaptive skills based on years of experience, and this accumulation of learning experiences may be called rural peoplefs knowledge."	"No data on alien weeds. FFS (Farmer Field Schools: a form of social learning, negotiation and effective collective action that focuses on societyfs relationship with nature) is mentioned on native weeds."	"The Beninese Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Fishing (MAEP) through its extension services has organized farmers in groups (GVs) to allow them to have access to the production resources, mainly inputs and credit."	"Farmers do not fully trust government-paid extension agents, and restoring farmersf trust in governmental extension agents have a merit."	the concept of a weed ? a plant that is unwanted where it grows ? is to some extent socially constructed.	Farmers evaluate the impacts of weeds based on the damage the weeds cause to crops and human beings.	"No data on whether or not farmers understand the drivers and the connections of drivers of IAS. [Drivers are mentioned in the paper, but its from the authors analyses not from the dialogue from local farmers.]"	No data	"Subsistence farmers, 24 villages"																																																																													
	"Romina Fernandez, Fellow Chpt.4"	27/06/2021 RF	Voggesser et al. 2013-Cultural impacts to tribes from climate change influences on forests	No data IPLC. Literature review.	Literature review. The authors did not mention the number of articles reviewed	"Sudden Oak Death, or SOD (Phytophthora ramorum), emerald ash borer or EAB (Agrilus planipennis)"	spread	"gSudden Oak Death, or SOD (Phytophthora ramorum), first detected in coastal northern California in the mid-1990s, is now threatening oak-dominated forest ecosystemsh                                 gEAB, first discovered in Michigan in 2002, has spread to 18 states and two Canadian provincesh "	Resource extraction	"""when people unknowingly transport infested trees, logs, or firewood"" "	No data	No data	No data	"SOD: gIn addition to the increased mortality of culturally valued plants, heightened fuel loading will elevate the threat of wildfire. As trees and shrubs die, fuel accumulates, threatening life, property and resources""                       EAB: gis an invasive beetle from Asia thathas caused widespread ash (Fraxinus spp.) mortalityh "	no data	"""as SOD spreads, it will diminish tribal opportunities for utilizing forest resources. Many of the pathogenfs hosts are trees or shrubs utilized by tribes for foods, materials, and medicines""...""As trees and shrubs die, fuel accumulates, threatening life, property and resources."" ""gEAB is creating landscape-level change and impacting the cultural practices of indigenous peoples who use black ash (Fraxinus nigra)...
gThe loss of ash and the associated basketry tradition would have deep economic, cultural and spiritual effects on tribes
"	"Use of herbicides for SOD.
gIndigenous basketmakers and ash harvesters are working collaboratively with university researchers, state and federal foresters, landowners, and others to prevent, detect, and respond to the invasive EABh  
"	Use of Herbicides to limit the spread of SOD.	"gSome current treatments, such as herbicides, used to prevent or limit the spread of SOD (Valachovic et al. 2011) can also degrade tribally valued forest resourcesh  "	Indigenous basketmakers and ash harvesters: to protect their resources and incomes	No data	No data	No data	"gThe economic impact of EAB-related street tree removal and replacement in a 25-state region is estimated at $10.7 billion"""	"gThe loss of ash and the associated basketry tradition would have deep economic, cultural and spiritual effects on tribes. Sales of ash basketry exceed $150,000 each year and many tribal household incomes are partially dependent upon this resourceh "	"Material and immaterial assets, Social, spiritual and cultural relations and Safety and security"	No data	"Invasive species SOD- Material and inmaterial assets and Social, spiritual and cultural relations: Many of the pathogenfs hosts are trees or shrubs utilized by tribes for foods, materials, and medicinesh... gIn addition to the increased mortality of culturally valued plants, heightened fuel loading will elevate the threat of wildfire. Safety and security: As trees and shrubs die, fuel accumulates, threatening life, property and resource""                     invasive species EAB- Material and inmaterial assets and Social, spiritual and cultural relations: ""The loss of ash and the associated basketry tradition would have deep economic, cultural and spiritual effects on tribes"""	No data	No data	No data	No data	" gIndigenous basketmakers and ash harvesters are working collaboratively with university researchers, state and federal foresters, landowners, and others to prevent, detect, and respond to the invasive EABh "	"Indigenous basketmakers and ash harvesters are working collaboratively with university researchers, state and federal foresters, landowners, and others to prevent, detect, and respond to the invasive EABh 
gIn the Northeast, work is underway to involve tribes in Emergency Response Planning efforts with invasive species such as the EAB. Collaborative efforts to address EAB as it approaches Maine have resulted in four areas of research and actions that are being employed: mapping ash resources, developing policy guidance, public education and stakeholder engagement, and seed collection"" "	No data.	"gThe current and expected climate change impacts on SOD-infected forests will likely increase the vulnerability of coastal redwood and mixed conifer-hardwood ecosystemsh            gIn the Northeast, work is underway to involve tribes in Emergency Response Planning efforts with invasive species such as the EABh "	No data	No data	No data	"INVASIVE SPECIES AEB: gThe loss of ash and the associated basketry tradition would have deep economic, cultural and spiritual effects on tribesh "																																																																														
AP.8	"Bridget B Umar, LA Chpt 6"	17/7/2021	"Wakie et al, 2016. Assessing the distribution and impacts of Prosopsis juliflora through participatory approaches"	"Afar nomads, arid, semi-arid and desert agro-climatic zones of Ethiopia"	"62 pastoralists and 46 agro-pastoralists  (43 pastoralists and 30 agro-pastoralists were men , 19 pastoralists and 16 agro-pastoralists were women)."	Weyane Trees (Prosopis juliflora)	Spread	"gAmong the villages that we studied, Udleisi (Alledeghi) was the most recently invaded site where P. juliflora was reported to have first established 10-12 years ago. In the rest of the villages, P. juliflora was reported present for the past 20-40 yearsh. Ninety-nine percent of the interviewed people confirmed that P. juliflora is spreading and expanding its range throughout the Afar."	Natural drivers	"floods, dispersal by non-domesticated animals(warthogs (Phacochoerus africanus), hamadryas baboons (Papio hamadryas), grivet monkeys ), domesticated animals (cattle, sheep, goats, camel) and humans (pastoralists)"	No data	No data	No data	"P. juliflora negatively affects the native flora by invading grasslands, shrub-lands, and woodlands. This had led to a decline in number of wild animals in the area such as gazelle (Nanger soemmerringii; waydedo) ,beisa oryx (Oryx beisa; beida), lesser kudu (Tragelaphus imberbis; ambarile) swayane's heartbeast (Alcelaphus buselaphus ssp. swaynei; korke), defassa waterbuck (Kobus ellipsiprymnus; gurdi), and Grevy's zebra (Equus grevyi; daama)"	"P. juliflora has many uses including charcoal, firewood, construction wood and animal fodder. Eighty-two percent of the interviewed people admitted that they use P. juliflora products in their household"	"According to interviewees, P. juliflora has directly or indirectly suppressed traditional Afar sport and dance activities in all of the studied villages. P. juliflora has damaged livelihoods, well being and cultural knowledge of the Afar people."	No data	"The most effective and widely practiced control methods include cutting trees, uprooting stumps, burning, and converting cleared lands into croplands or managed grasslands. Mechanical clearing of P. juliflora monocultures using bulldozers along the Awash River has also had promising results"	No data	No data	"Utilisation of invasive species, Changes in wild resource systems, Changes in livestock systems"	"(1)Utilisation of invasive species: P. juliflora is used for charcoal production, (2)Changes in livestock systems:  P. juliflora is altering the region's land-cover by invading grasslands and open areas, less fodder for livestock. (3)Changes in wild resource systems: gEighty-seven percent of the respondents (69 men and 25 women) stated that the wild animals, particularly the herbivores, migrated to other sites and their number declined because the native grass and forage species have been replaced by Weyaneh. "	No data	No data	P. juliflora invasion was reported to reduce the production and quality of milk and dairy products	Safety and security	No data	"Open areas which were used as venues for playing Afar traditional sports are now invaded by P. juliflora. Weyane has also blocked roads, reduced peoples' visibility, and thus made night walks dangerous. Young Afar boys and girls who once traveled long distances at night to sing traditional songs and participate in traditional dances now stay at home to avoid injury from P. juliflora thorns. "	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	"There is a strong awareness among Afar communities of how P.juliflora spreads. Both men and women groups described the main seed dispersal agents as cattle, camels, goats, sheep, warthogs (Phacochoerus africanus), hamadryas baboons (Papio hamadryas), grivet monkeys (Chlorocebus aethiops), flood, and humans"	No data	Afar pastoralists																																																																													
	"Ellen Ryan-Colton, fellow CH4"	12/07/2021 ERC	Weston et al 2012. Arafura three: Aboriginal ranger groups protecting and managing an internationally signi?cant swamp	"Three indigenous ranger groups that work around Arafura Swamp, central Arnhem Land, Northern Territory, Australia (tropical savannas/wetlands). Includes Gurruwiling rangers, South-east arafura rangers and Wanga Djakamirr (Yolgnu) rangers"	"Three indigenous ranger groups including elders (traditional owners) and rangers and community members. Report on the rangers' activities, written by IPLC and non-IPLC authors"	"All invasives in the Arafura Swamp ? animals mentioned are Water Buffalo (Bubalis bubalis), feral Pig (Sus scrofa) and Cattle (Bos spp.), Cane Toad (Rhinella marina) and feral Cat (Felis catus). Weeds mentioned are Mimosa (Mimosa pigra) and Olive Hymenachne (Hymenachne amplexicaulis), Mission Grass (Pennisetum polystachion), snake weeds (Stachytarpheta spp.) and Para Grass (Brachiaria mutica)."	Establishment	"populations of weeds and feral animals are currently low and manageable. For example, Mimosa has had control efforts and now the population is very low"	"Climate change, IAS"	"climate change and salt-water intrusion are also mentioned as drivers of ecosystem change of the swamp, and may be interacting with IAS (buffalo could be exacerbating saltwater intrusion) and also the motivation to protect the swamp from threats that can be managed (e.g. IAS). "	"Politics, governance and institutions"	"Government policies creating ranger groups that then respond to invasives. Such as recognising Arafura swamp formally in legislation, and then funding flows to this area.  "	No data	"Physical damage to wetlands by Water buffalo, feral pig and cattle. "	No data	No data	"Ranger groups assist with quarantine monitoring, with eary detection of exotic pests, and collecting samnples to detect diseases"	"Ranger groups are carrying out the control work. Controlling weeds, culling pig populations, fencing off areas to exclude large exotic herbivores. "	"Some programs have been effective (mimosa has been reduced by IPLC management) but overall need more sustainable support/funding. Constraints include: ""Short-term funding cycles, shifting government priorities, organisational instability in remote Australia, governance issues and the disparity in values between policy makers and Indigenous Australians."" "	"Protect the Arafura Swamp (site-based work). 
Cultural motivations to continue customary land management. Originally fire and ceremonial practices, now increasingly weeds and feral animals. 
Protect sacred sites.
government-led motivations such carrying out actions in the natural resource management plans
"	Conserve / protect threatened species	"protecting the Arafura Swamp and all of its values, most of which is Aboriginal customary uses and biodiversity. "	Community ranger teams are carrying out the IAS managemnent as part of paid ranger teams (employment)	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	"Ranger teams following government natural resource management plans, but also carrying out traditional use of the swamp and carry out IAS management for this purpose"	ranger teams collaborate with government groups	No data 	"Need more sustainable funding, possibly with ranger work tied to markets such as the carbon-credit market. "	No data	No data	no data	"The IAS are said to be directly threatening the Arafura Swamp and its many values, which the majority land use of Arafura swamp is Aborginal customary use, so it is a threat to cultural practice. "	"Aboriginals, Arafura swamp, Central Arnhem Land"																																																																													
	"Tatsiana Lipinskaya, Fellow, Chpt1"	02/07/2021 TL	Willow 2011 -Indigenizing Invasive Species Management: Native North Americans and the Emerald Ash Borer (EAB) Beetle  	"American Indian communities in the woodland northeast.
Southeastern Michigan, interview 2009-2010, analysis of media sources  - from the date of EABfs initial detection (2002) in southeastern Michigan through the end of 2009."	four American Indian individuals identified by their colleagues as traditional basket weavers or as active participants in tribal EAB management initiatives	emerald ash borer (Agrilus planipennis)	Spread	"gregional infestations were already well established by the time the speciesf presence was confirmed in 2002By the spring of 2011, EAB had spread into 15 states and two Canadian provincesh (Willow, 2011, 70)"	No data	No data	Economic	"anthropogenic introductions?caused by moving infested firewood, lumber, and nursery stock?have carried the pest far and wide."	No data	"Negative. The impact on North American ash trees (genus Fraxinus) has been devastating; over 25,000,000 have succumbed in southeastern Michigan alone (McCullough 2008)h (Willow, 2011, 70)"	No data	black ash basketry as a significant component of a self-conscious cultural identity is a significant component of black ash basketry is now in jeopardy	Education.  Development of their own  firewood regulations. Can adopt and adapt their statesf EAB plans	"Removal as a part of their logging activities. seed-banking programs.  gscientific management is a good thing to cope with EAB. We as natives are not opposed to science, and have been practicing gscienceh of our own for centuries.h  (Willow 2011, 76))"	"was emphasized that tribal managers should avoid the use of chemicals and genetically modified organisms, should be as nonpolluting as possible, and should investigate potential toxicity before applicationcifically stated that they oppose the use of systemic chemicals and species introductions for spiritual and/or ecological reasons"	"Motives are traditional values.  goal is preserving distinctive indigenous cultural identities
"	Conserve / protect threatened species	"gplan is to go out and harvest as much ash as [she] could,h and then process and store it so that she could continue to make baskets in the future. (Willow 2011, 76))
"	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	gNative applications of scientific management are not face value adoptions of external paradigms; they have instead been transformed into powerful tools for achieving the broader goal of preserving distinctive indigenous cultural identities.h 	No data	No data	No data	No data	"For many Native people, environmental and cultural concerns cannot be easily separated. "	No data																																																																														
	"Romina Fernandez, Fellow Chpt.4"	14/06/2021 RF	Witt et al. 2019-Distribution of invasive alien Tithonia (Asteraceae) species in eastern and southern Africa and the socioecological impacts of T. diversifolia in Zambia 	"livestock owners and farmers, Copperbelt province, Zambia"	"166 individuals of Copperbelt province, Zambia/Interviews"	"Tithonia diversifolia, Tithonia rotundifolia, Tithonia tubaeformis"	Spread (Tithonia diversifolia and T. rotundifolia) Establishment (T. tubaeformis)	"gTithonia diversifolia has spread rapidly since its introduction into eastern and southern Africa, and it is now widespread in Kenya, Rwanda, Tanzania and Uganda, with significant invasions in Malawi, South Africa and parts of Zambia. Although recorded in Angola, Mozambique and Zimbabwe the full extent of these invasions is unknown""  gT. rotundifolia has been present in South Africa since at least 1946h...h In southern Africa T. rotundifolia is now widespread in Malawi, Zambia and Zimbabwe and increasing rapidly in South Africa"" ""T. tubaeformis it is known to occur in Zambia. It is localized, but abundant where it occurs in Swaziland and South Africa """	Land-use and Sea-use change	"gIn West Africa, T. diversifolia was thought to have been brought into Nigeria, from Israel, as a maize contaminant in the 1970sh No data for T. Rotundifolia and T. tubaeformis."	No data	No data	No data	"""According to the majority of respondents in Zambia, T. diversifolia has negative impacts on native vegetationh "	"gA number of respondents thought that T. diversifolia increased grass (23%) and tree (21%) abundance. Some respondents (15%) felt that T. diversifolia presence in croplands increased crop yields (15%). Other benefits mentioned included use as a medicinal plant (33%) to treat abscesses, snakebite and dysentery. Furthermore, T. diversifolia was sometimes seen as a beneficial ornamental or hedge plant, as livestock feed and as green manureh "	"""Key negative aspects raised by respondents included impacts on grass and tree cover, mobility or access, water availability, crop yield and animal health"""	No data	""" control T. diversifolia primarily though slashing"" Some people use herbicides."	No data	Farmers: To maintain crop yields	Abandonment	"gMost farmers in invaded areas in Nigeria have abandoned their farmlands because of invasions by T. diversifolia. Because T. diversifolia is a prolific seeder, it can rapidly colonise crop fields and increase labour costs"""	""" (61%) respondents spent 1 day per year clearing T. diversifolia, while 18% reported spending around 5 days per year on this activityh "	"""Of those who actively cleared T. diversifolia, 58% paid for help at a cost of $12 ? $24 per ha. Of those respondents using herbicides, 34% spent $10 ? $50 per year and 16% paid more than $50. Crop losses would be higher if T. diversifolia was not controlledh "	"gTithonia diversifolia invades and competes with agricultural crops and reduces yields"""	"Freedom of choice or action, Material and immaterial assets"	"Material and immaterial assets: T. diversifolia has medicina properties, it is   used as a hedge plant, livestock feed and as a green manure"	"Freedom of choice or action, Material and immaterial assets: T. diversifolia decreases the movement, access and grass cover and negatively affects the water availability, crop yields, livestock health and tree cover"	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	"gAs Tithonia species spread and densify, management costs will increase steeply, leading to the possible abandonment of productive cropland when the cost of control becomes prohibitiveh "	No data	"""Of the respondents who mentioned impacts on crop yields, 23% said that it can reduce crop yields by 75%, and around 10% mentioned losses of 25% ? 50% if not managed in fieldsh "	"""some believed it to have been introduced as an ornamental (hedge) plant, for medicinal purposes and as livestock feed"""	"A number of respondents thought that T. diversifolia increased grass, tree  abundance and  crop yields. Other benefits mentioned included use as a medicinal plant. ""More than 40% of respondents said that T. diversifolia was the most problematic weed in croplands"".  ""Tithonia diversifolia was also considered the most problematic weed in pastures"""	"Livestock owners, farmers from Copperbelt"																																																																													
AP.1	"Ankila Hiremath, LA, Ch. 4"	12/07/2021 AH	"Zeray et al. 2017. Impacts of Prosopis juliflora invasion on livelihoods of pastoral and agro-pastoral households of Dire Dawa Administration, Ethiopia "	"Afar Agro-pastoral communities; Dire Dawa Administration, Ethiopia"	"Agro-pastoralist households; published and unpublished government and NGO reports. Questionnaire surveys; review of published and unpublished reports
"	Prosopis juliflora	Spread	"gProsopis has invaded most of the pastoral and agro-pastoral areas of Afar Regional State and Dire Dawa Administration. In Ethiopia, Prosopis has covered an area of one million hectares and more than 12,000 ha in Dire Dawa Administration (BoARD 2009). In the Middle Awash, about 30,000 ha of grassland, rangelands, water points and croplands are estimated to be occupied by Prosopis (Mehari 2008) .h (Zeray et al. 2017, p.2)"	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	"Increased income from fuelwood collection, charcoal making, and crop production."	"Reduced income from milk production and sale of livestock. ""According to the respondents, reduced pasture availability (caused by mesquite invasion) and frequent rain shortage caused the problem.hc""the invasion reduces grass cover of grazing lands and consequently affects stocking density."" (Zeray et al. 2017, p.7)"	No data	No data	No data	No data	Utilisation of invasive species	"fuelwood, charcoal making"	Larger households better able to use/control Prosopis -- more labour available (negative correlation with Prosopis invasion); households with older household heads less able to use/control Prosopis (positive correlation with Prosopis invasion)	"Households engaged in food-for-work programmes less likely to control Prosospis (therefore positive correlation with Prosopis invasion); households with greater livestock wealth better able to find alternative income  sources and again, show positive correlation with Prosopis invasion"	"Income from milk reduced, but income from fuelwood, charcoal, crop production increased, and expenditure on education, food, non-food enhanced.  ""Prosopis invasion has boosted education expenditure, average annual income from crop production, off-farm income, food and non-food expenditure, physical food consumption and income from fuel wood and charcoal in Prosopis-invaded household by Birr 213.053 (USD 11.068), Birr 529.43 (USD 27.503), Birr 3831.295 (USD 199.028), Birr 2607.103 (USD 135.434), 805.421 cal and Birr 2133.399 (USD 110.826), respectively, over the non-invaded households. On the other hand, Prosopis invasion has reduced milk income by Birr 410.667 over the non-invaded households (Table 10) .h (Zeray et al. 2017, p.10)"	Material and immaterial assets	"Increased expenditure on education, increased food and non-food expenditure; increased food consumption."	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data	"Federal government of Ethiopia identifies Prosopis juliflora as an invasive species to be controlled/eradicated, but there is no policy regarding Prosopis management at regional level, including for this study area."	No data.	No data	No data	No data	No data	"People have incorporated Prosopis as an income source (fuelwood, charcoal making)"	Afar pastoralists																																																																													
																																																																																																																						
																																																																																																																						
																																																																																																																						
																																																																																																																						
																																																																																																																						
																																																																																																																						
																																																																																																																						
																																																																																																																						
																																																																																																																						
																																																																																																																						
																																																																																																																						
																																																																																																																						
																																																																																																																						
																																																																																																																						
																																																																																																																						
																																																																																																																						
																																																																																																																						
																																																																																																																						
																																																																																																																						
																																																																																																																						
																																																																																																																						
																																																																																																																						
																																																																																																																						
																																																																																																																						
																																																																																																																						
																																																																																																																						
																																																																																																																						
																																																																																																																						
																																																																																																																						
																																																																																																																						
